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Acceptance Region The positions in an issue space that are acceptable solutions to a negotiator. Agreement Region The intersection of negotiators'acceptance regions during a negotiation. AI Environment A piece of software that integrates traditional (e.g., business) computing capabilities with AI technology such as natural language processing and inference. Within this environment, natural language conservation can be used to exercise many of the traditional capabilities (e.g.,business graphics, statistics generation), expert systems that employ those capabilities (e.g., spreadsheet analysis, data base management) can be built, and the traditional capabilities (e.g., procedural models, spreadsheets) can themselves carry out expert system consultations. Thus, in a single piece of software, the capabilities of an inference engine, rule set manager, and natural language processor are blended with traditional capabilities. Alternative One of the possible decisions that a decision maker can choose. Analysis The activity of subjecting data to a procedure thereby producing some beliefs, expectations, or solutions for some problem; the part of system development concerned with identifying what the system is required to do. Analytical An approach to decision making that involves Hierarchy Process structuring multiple criteria for deciding into a hierarchy, assessing the relative importance of these criteria, comparing alternatives for each criterion, and determining an overall ranking of the alternatives. Announcing Conveying the result of a decision-making process. Application Someone who develops (i.e., conceives, designs, Developer implements, tests, delivers) application software. Application Program that manages knowledge pertaining to a specific Software application area (e.g., payroll, order entry, market analysis). Application The combination of application software, the System knowledge managed by that software, and the interface that allows a user to interact with the software. Arbitration Coordination methods that can apply when there is conflict among the multiple participants engaged in decision making. Architecture A design that can be used to guide the implementation of a system or a framework that can be used to guide the study of a subject. Artificial A field of study and application concerned with Intelligence identifying and using tools and techniques that allow machines to exhibit behavior that would be considered intelligent if it were observed in humans. Assimilative Knowledge the controls what knowledge is acceptable for Knowledge assimilation into a knowledge system. Assistance Messages Messages issued by a DSS to assist the user in using the system (e.g., help messages). Asynchronous Communication in which the message passing is not Communication synchronized. Participants send messages to each other at different times that suit their own individual needs. Asynchronous A method of transmission in which the sending and Transimission receiving machines are synchronized by signals indicating the start and end of each transmitted character. Authority The power possessed by a participant in an organization to make decisions on behalf of the organization regarding the structuring of its resources and the cultivation of relationships to its environment. Authority Level The relative extent of a decision maker's authority, ranging from the power to make day-to-day operating decisions for some small slice of organizational activity to the power to make strategic decisions with a pervasive impact on organizational activities. Automatic The generation of a desired program by another program Programming that accepts a description of the generated program's desired traits.Backward Chaining An approach to rule-based reasoning in which the inference engine endeavors to find a value for an overall goal by recursively finding values for subgoals. At any point in the recursion, the effort of finding a value for the immediate goal involves examining rule conclusions to identify those rules that could possibly establish a value for that goal. An unknown variable in the premise of one of these candidate rules becomes a new subgoal for recursion purposes. Bus A connection allowing transmissions between computer components. Business Computing Computer-based systems used for business purposes. These Systems include automatic data processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems. By-Products Knowledge produced in the manufacture of a decision (e.g., solutions to intermediate problems) in addition to the decision itself.
Candidate Rules A group of rules that the inference engine has determined to be of immediate relevance at the present juncture in a reasoning process. These rules will be considered according to a particular selection order and subject to a prescribed degree of rigor. Cell The smallest constituent of a spreadsheet. Visually, a spreadsheet's cells are arranged into rows and columns. Each cell is referenced by the row and column in which it exists. A cell can have a definition that indicates how to compute the value of that cell. Advanced spreadsheets allow cells to be defined in terms of commands in addition to traditional expressions. Cell Definition An indication of what actions the spreadsheet software should take when processing the cell (e.g., an expression that the software evaluates, with the result being displayed to a user). Cell Value The value (if any) most recently calculated for a cell. Certainty Algebra The mathematical conventions that are used to combine two or more certainty factors to yield a single certainty factor. Certainty Factor A numeric measure of the degree of certainty about the goodness, correctness, likelihood, and so forth of a variable value, an expression value (e.g., a premise), or an assignment action. Chief Information A high-level executive in charge of managing an Officer organization's information and Officer who participates with other executives in strategic decision making. Chief Knowledge A high-level executive who manages the capture, production, and productive use of knowledge in an organization, championing a knowledge-based culture in the organization, and contributing a knowledge-based perspective to strategic decision making. Choice The phase of decision making concerned with choosing one of the alternatives identified via the prior phases of intelligence and design. Clarification A message to or from a DSS that requests or provides clarification of some message provides clarification of some prior message. Client/Server A distributed computing system in which multiple personal Architecture computers called clients share the memory and processing capabilities of another (typically larger) computer called a server. Clipboard A "place" where data "cut" or copies from one program's work area may be deposited for subsequent "pasting" into another program's work area. Coalition A collection of two or more participants in a negotiation who have agreed to take the same position on issues as the negotiation unfolds. Cognitive Limit A limit on the human mind's ability to represent or process knowledge. Cognitive Style An individual's approach to acquiring, organizing, discarding, and using knowledge (e.g., during decision making). For instance, the approach may emphasize qualitative knowledge versus quantitative knowledge. Collaborative A system that allows multiple authors to collaborate in Authoring System the production of a document (e.g., a document needed during the process of manufacturing a decision or needed to announce a decision). Communication The interchange of messages resulting in the transferral or creation of knowledge. Communication Computer and communication technology that links multiple Network participants in a joint activity which can range from simply passing messages to group decision making to project management. Communication A computer-based system that enhances its user’s ability Support System to communicate. Communication The interconnection of two (or more) devices that allows Paths the transmission of knowledge and requests between them. Competitive An organization's plan for staying competitive or Strategy achieving a competitive advantage relative to other organizations in its environment. Competing Rules Those candidate rules that have yet to be considered. Compile The act of producing an object program (or rule set) from a source language version of the program (or rule set). The object program can be executed by a computer, whereas the source version cannot. Compiler Software that carries out the compilation of a set of valid statements in some designated (i.e., source) language. Completion A portion of a rule set composed of actions that the Sequence inference engine will carry out after all reasoning with the rule set's rules has been completed. Compound DSS A decision support system that incorporates two or more knowledge management techniques. Computer-mediated The use of computers to create, store, deliver, and Communication process communications. Computer Supported The use of computers to support cooperative work among Cooperative Work multiple participants (e.g., collaborative authoring), as distinct from work that may not be cooperative. Computer Audio-video telecommunication support of simultaneous Teleconferencing interactions among participants (e.g., involving conference calls or videoconferencing). Conclusion A portion of a rule composed of series of one or more actions that the inference engine can legitimately carry out if a rule's premise can be established to be true. Concepts Pieces of knowledge (ranging from abstract to concrete, from qualitative to quantitative) that can be represented and processed. Concurrency The situation that exists when a decision maker is working on multiple decision problems simultaneously. Condition A logical expression comprised of a logical variable, of a logical function, or of two expressions connected by a relational operator such as >, =, <=, IN, and so on. The two participating expressions must be of the same type (e.g., both numeric). In the case of the IN operator, the second expression is typically a collection of expressions. Conditional A programming method that causes the flow of command Branching execution to branch in a certain direction depending on whether a specified condition is satisfied. Conditional A programming method that causes the flow of command Iteration execution to iterate through a sequence of commands for as long as a specified condition is satisfied. Confederation An approach to software integration that involves multiple functionally distinct pieces of software each of which can access the same knowledge representation. Conferencing The use of computer and communication technology to conduct a conference without requiring participants to convene in the same place at the same time. Confirmative The certainty factor that results from combining two or Certainty more certainty factors in such a way that they confirm each other. The resultant confirmative certainty factor is at least as large as the largest contributing certainty factor. Constant A known value that never changes. Consultation The activity of acquiring or producing expert advice or solutions to a problem. Consultation The knowledge processing environment within which expert Environment system consultation occurs. Control Commands Commands in a programming language that are used to control the flow of program execution (e.g., conditional branching commands). Control Logic The logic embedded in a procedure to govern what will happen when and under what circumstances. Controlling A managerial function concerned with ensuring that plans are carried out properly. Coordinating A managerial function concerned with harmonizing activities in an organization; ensuring that proper resources are brought into play at appropriate times and that they adequately relate to each other during the course of some activity (e.g., decision making). Coordination The requirements for relating a prospective system’s Requirements interface behavior and its functional behavior. Coordination A system that helps integrate and harmonize the System activities of individuals working toward the achievement of some shared goal. Coordination A field of study concerned with the uses of technology in Technology coordinating the efforts of multiple participants in cooperative, competitive, or conflicting situations. Corporate A decision support system that holds and derives Planning System knowledge relevant to planning decisions that cut across organizational units and involve all of an organization's functions (i.e., its operations, finance, marketing, personnel, etc.). Criteria Standards by which alternatives are judged. Critical Success The factors that have been identified as most important Factors to the success of an organization.
Current State The present configuration of an organization's resources. Data Mining The extraction of patterns of interest from a data repository. Data Set A collection of data organized into the format required for input to a particular program (e.g., for numeric analysis by a solver). Data Source A data set, database, file, or other repository of data that can be used for processing (e.g., for graph generation). Data Warehousing A strategy of extracting data from large databases (and other sources) for storage in smaller databases, giving managers the ability to more easily explore and analyze it as a basis for faster and improved decisions. Database Control Software that accomplishes creation, modification, and System retrieval of data for a database in response to a user's data manipulation requests. Decision The choice of one from among a number of alternatives; a piece of knowledge indicating a commitment to some course of action. Decision Context The situation within which a decision is made. Decision Maker An individual, group, team, or other type of organization having the authority to make a decision about what to do. Decision Making The activity that culminates in the choice of an alternative; the activity of using knowledge as raw materials in the manufacture of knowledge about what to do. Decision Making One of the three (possibly overlapping) phases in a Phase decision-making process: intelligence, design, and choice. Decision Making An approach to guiding a decision-making process Strategy (e.g., satisficing, optimizing). Decision Room A specially equipped room in which participants in group decision making use computers to mediate and facilitate their interactions in the course of reaching a decision. Decision Support A computer-based system composed of a language system, System presentation, system, knowledge system, and problem- processing system whose collective purpose is the support of decision-making activities. Decision Type A particular kind of decision. There are multiple ways to classify decision types (e.g., structured versus unstructured, unilateral versus negotiated). Decisional Role One of the three major types of roles a manager plays, the others being informational and interpersonal. Default Goal The goal that an inference engine pursues if none is specified by the user at the outset of a consultation. Default Value A value that exists unless explicitly changed by a user or program. Delphi Technique A formal approach to collecting views from multiple persons about some topic (e.g., a forecast, a decision problem). The approach is iterative, involving each participant independently providing views in writing to a leader who provides feedback for the next round in an attempt to foster convergence of views with each successive round. Demon Procedural knowledge that is automatically executed when certain prespecified events occur. Dependency A diagram containing nodes for the variables Diagram (i.e., factors) that are pertinent to a problem area. The nodes are connected by arrows that portray the de pendencies that exist among the variables. Descriptive Knowledge about past, present, and hypothetical states Knowledge of an organization and its environment. Design A phase of decision making that involves the identification of alternatives, analysis of the likely outcome of each, and evaluation of those outcomes with respect to the organization's purpose; a part of system development concerned with creating a blueprint to guide the implementation of the system. Desktop Allows participants in a joint activity to simultaneously Conferencing interact through their desktop computers whose display screens are partitioned into multiple windows for textual, graphical, and video interaction. The computers are also equipped for audio interaction. Desktop Publishing The use of desktop computers for producing high-quality page layouts. Developer The person(s) involved in specifying system requirements (interface, functional, coordination), designing the system to meet the requirements, and implementing the system according to the designed blueprint. Development Cycle A sequence of steps undertaken in the development of a system -- following the identification of a need for the system and proceeding through the installation of the system for operational use. The latter can trigger the former, leading to another cycle of development. Development Tool Software that a developer uses to facilitate the analysis, design, or implementation of a system. Dictionary Linguistic knowledge consisting of vocabulary of words available for natural language interaction. Direct A type of interface in which a user makes requests by Manipulation manipulating items displayed on a console screen. Interface The displayed items are visual replicas or indicators of non-electronic counterparts. Document An object in which knowledge is represented as pages in a book (e.g., as text, perhaps with pictures and tables). These may be organized sequentially or linked to each other in hypertext fashion. Do-It-Yourself The use of software tools by people who are not computer Computing professionals. Do-It-Yourself Development of a system by the system's intended user Development (who is typically not a computer professional). Domain Knowledge Knowledge about a particular application area or problem domain. Drill Down The ability to see increasingly detailed information about some topic of interest.
Economic Limit A limit on knowledge processing or decision making that is due to funding constraints. Electronic A repository of messages that have been sent to it, any Bulletin Board of which can be viewed by the bulletin board's users. Electronic Data Same as automatic data processing. Processing Electronic Forms An electronic version of traditional paper forms that can be filled-in and read, but with calculations being done automatically. Also see form. Electronic Mail A communication service that allows messages to be sent electronically by one person to other specifically designated persons, where they are stored until read. Electronic Meeting A computer-based system that facilitates a meeting. When System the purpose of the meeting is to make a decision, the system is a DSS (e.g., for a group decision maker). Electronic An electronic version of traditional paper grid-like Spreadsheet worksheets, allowing rapid calculations and "what-if" analysis. Elimination- A decision-making strategy that eliminates all by-Aspects alternatives not passing the most important decision criterion (i.e., aspect), then eliminating all that do not pass for the second aspect, and so forth. Emergent Situation A decision-making context that involves some facets not previously experienced by the decision maker. Emulation An activity in which one entity (e.g., a computer) offers the same observable behavior as another (e.g., a human or a computer). End User The user of application software; one who is not a computer professional, yet directly uses software tools to meet some of his or her own knowledge management needs. Established A decision-making context that the decision maker has Situation repeatedly experienced in the past. Evaluation The activity of assessing the quality (i.e., validity and/or utility) of a system or the knowledge it contains. Evolutionary A partial or simplified version of a system that is Prototype developed in a relatively short time with the intent of getting feedback about it as a basis for seeing how to improve it in an iterative way. Executive A decision support system customized to satisfying wide- Information ranging needs of top executives in selectively filtering, System extracting, compressing, and viewing information about the organization and its environment. Executive Support A decision support system having features of an executive System information system, plus other capabilities such as the execution of solvers or the provision of communication support. Expert System A computer-based system composed of a user interface, an inference engine, and stored expertise (i.e., a rule set of an entire knowledge system). Its purpose is to offer advice or solutions for problems in a particular problem area, thereby functioning as an artificially intelligent DSS. The advice is comparable to that which would be offered by a human expert in that problem area. Expert System Software used to facilitate the development of expert Development Tool systems. The three types of tools are programming languages (and their respective interpreter or compiler software), shells, and AI environments. Expert System A knowledge management environment supporting the Environment technique of rule management. Expert System Same as shell. Shell Expert Testing The stage of an expert system development cycle in which the advice offered by the system is tested (e.g., by the expert) for correctness. Explanation The response that an expert system gives when asked to justify why it gave the advice it did for a particular consultation. Export The act of outputting some knowledge system contents into a file whose format is acceptable to another program. Expression A constant, variable, or function, or a series of constants, variables, and/or functions connected by meaningful operators. Expression A knowledge management technique in which expressions Management serve as the representation method and evaluation as the processing method. Extrinsic Tool A development tool that does not become part of the system being developed.
Facilitator A person(s) who manages the use of a group decision support system from initial planning through actual operation. Feasibility A study of the technical and economic prospects for Study developing a system prior to actually committing resources to actually developing it. Feedback Knowledge about the behavior of a system or its outcomes that is fed back into the system (e.g., as a basis for system changes that will affect its future behavior and outcomes). Field A named category of data. Fields are used in defining the structure of a database. File A collection of knowledge that treated as a whole by the operating system; a collection of data records of some type that can be processed by file management (as opposed to data base management) operations. File Management A type of data management that organizes data into files System without adhering to any of the major data models. File Transfer A kind of remote communications in which files are sent and received by connected computers. Filter A mechanism that excludes unwanted knowledge (e.g., from being assimilated into a knowledge system or from being displayed to a user). Find Actions Those actions stated in a variable description that an inference engine can use (e.g., as an alternative to backward chaining) to find the value of that variable when it is unknown. Firing a Rule The activity of carrying out the actions in a rule's conclusion, once it has been established that the rule's premise is true. Flowchart A diagram showing the flow of steps for accomplishing some procedure. Form A piece of presentation knowledge that indicates the visual layout to display slots, the source of the value that can appear in each slot, and special attributes for the slot (e.g., reverse video, blinking). Format Same as picture; the way in which a file's contents are arranged; the layout of a form, template, or menu. Format Code A code embedded in a piece of text to control some aspect of the way the text will be formatted as it is printed. Form Management The ability to define forms and to subsequently process an entire form at a time with any one of several commands. Form Slot An element of a form through which information can be displayed to and/or collected from a user. Forms-oriented An interface style in which a user interacts by filling Interface in and viewing electronic forms. Forward Chaining An approach to rule-based reasoning in which the inference engine determines the effect of currently known variable values on unknown variables by firing all rules whose premises can be established as being true. Forward Reasoning Same as forward chaining. Frame A representation of an object in terms of slots where there is one slot for each of the object's characteristics. A particular instance of an object consists of a value for each of the frame's slots. The value may be assigned or determined by a procedure attached to the slot. Frames can be related to each other via inheritance slots. Function A named object whose value is determined by performing a particular kind of operation. The function name (e.g., SQRT) indicates the nature of the operation (e.g., finding a square root). A function typically has one or more arguments whose values are operated on in order to determine the function's value. Each argument is an expression. Functional DSS A decision support system that holds and derives knowledge relevant for decisions about some function an organization performs (e.g., a marketing function, a production function). Functional A specification of what problem solving activities a Requirements system needs to perform. Fuzzy Set A generalization of the traditional mathematical notion of a set that permits partial membership in a set. Fuzzy Variable A variable that simultaneously has two or more values. The certainty factor of one value may differ from that of another value.
Generalized A system developed by Newell and Simon to have the Problem Solver ability to solve a variety the ability to solve a variety of problems that could be expressed in terms of finding a path connecting an initial state and a goal state, involving the discovery of a proper sequence of operators each of which transforms one state into another. Genetic Algorithm A kind of artificial intelligence procedure that uses biological principles (e.g., reproduction, crossover, mutation) to improve a system's performance based on its problem solving experiences. Graphical Data values that can be used to generate a graphical Data Source presentation. Graphics A knowledge management technique concerned with the generation and manipulation of figures, plots, and geometric shapes. Group A simple kind of organization characterized by participants having comparable authority about the group's task (e.g., decision making), little in the way of formal divisions of labor and few restrictions on who can communicate with whom. Group DSS A decision support system designed to support a decision or decisions made by a group. Group Memory A facility for recording what a group has discovered and accomplished. Groupware Computer/communication technology used to facilitate the work of a group (e.g., a GDSS).
Help Text A textual description that appears on the console screen to help a computer's user. Heuristic A rule-of-thumb. The rules in a rule set may be thought of as being heuristics. Home Page A World Wide Web site's starting point for hypertext exploration of documents about a particular topic. Host A type of software in which other software executes (e.g., operating system, windowing shell). Human Decision A person whose function in an organization is to carry Support System out various knowledge management tasks for the purpose of supporting the deliberations of a decision maker. Hyperdocument A document composed of pages that are linked to represent relationships among them. A user can access pages related to a topic of interest by following a path of links. Hypertext A knowledge management technique in which knowledge is represented in linked documents and processed in a way that allows a user to select a highlighted marker on the currently viewed page to access a linked page about a topic indicated by the marker.
Implementation A stage of system development in which a system design is transformed into an actual system that operates according to that design. Import The act of assimilating the output of another program into the knowledge system being used by the present software. Incremental Modification of a system by making refinements, Modification extensions, and corrections to it rather than re- developing it from scratch in order to meet user needs. Incrementalism The decision strategy of muddling through by picking an alternative that is expected to produce an improvement over the current situation. Index A file that contains index key values and indications of where to find the records having those values, as a basis for fast record access. Index Key A collection of one or more fields whose collective value for some record serves as a basis for quickly accessing that record. Induction A process that attempts to derive general rules (or to build a decision tree) based on example problems and their solutions. Inference Engine A piece of software that is able to accept a problem statement from the user, use reasoning knowledge about the problem area in attempting to derive a solution, gather needed problem-specific information (e.g., from the user) in the course of reasoning, explain why it needs this added information, present the solution to the user, and explain the line of reasoning used in reaching the solution. Information Descriptive knowledge (characterizing the state of some past, present, future, or hypothetical solution). Information Center A component of an organization that helps facilitate do-it-yourself computing. Informational Role One of the three major types of roles a manager can play; it is concerned with acquiring, maintaining, and distributing information (and other types of knowledge). Infrastructure Knowledge about an organization's roles, their Knowledge relationship, and regulations on their activities. Initialization A portion of a rule set composed of actions that the Sequence inference engine will carry out before considering the rule set's rules. Integrated A tool for building expert systems that integrates the Environment capabilities of a shell with other knowledge management techniques such as database management, spreadsheet management, and programming. Integrated Software that allows multiple knowledge management Software techniques to be coordinated in some way (i.e., confederation, nesting, or synergy). Intelligence The first of Simon's three phases of decision making, concerned with recognizing the need for a decision and acquiring knowledge about the decision situation. Intelligent Agent A computerized mechanism (usually employing artificial intelligence techniques) that carries out certain specialized tasks. Interface A specification of the style and appearance that a Requiremtents system’s user interface needs to possess. Internet A global set of interconnected computer networks that gives a knowledge worker access to vast stores of knowledge. Interpersonal One of the three major types of roles a manager can play, Role it is concerned with establishing, cultivating, and fulfilling relationships with others. Interpreter Software that carries out commands that have not been previously compiled. These commands may be submitted interactively or in a batch (i.e., as a program). Interpreting A problem processor's activity of translating a language system request into some action that it can perform. Interpretive A program that processes user requests one at a time, Software immediately processing each. Intervenor A person, persons, or computer that aims to help participants in a negotiation reach an agreement. Interviewing A common approach to knowledge acquisition in which a system developer (e.g., knowledge engineer) interviews a knowledge source (e.g., an expert) in an effort to understand what should go into a knowledge system. Intrinsic Tool A development tool that becomes part of the system being developed. Issue Net All possible positions that can be taken in a negotiation about some matter of contention. Iteration The repeated execution of a series of commands.
Joint Certainty The certainty factor that results from combining two or more certainty factors in such a way that they detract from each other. The resultant joint certainty factor is no larger than the smallest of the contributing certainty factors.
Knowledge An organizational resource consisting of the sum of what is known. Knowledge The part of expert system development concerned with Acquisition eliciting, structuring, and representing an expert's reasoning knowledge. Knowledge The setting within which knowledge acquisition occurs, Acquisition characterized by the organization, project, and Context immediate surroundings that influence the outcome of a knowledge acquisition's process. Knowledge Methods used by knowledge engineers to acquire knowledge Acquisition from experts (e.g., interviewing, protocol analysis). Methods Knowledge The flow of activities undertaken in the course of Acquisition knowledge acquisition within some context, involving one Process or more episodes, one or more participants, and regulations governing the episodes and participants. Knowledge Base That part of an expert system containing application- specific reasoning knowledge that the inference engine uses in the course of reasoning about a problem. In expert systems whose reasoning knowledge is represented as rules, the knowledge base is a rules set or rule base. In some expert systems, a knowledge base can also contain initial values for variables. The traditional AI notion of "knowledge base" is a small, yet interesting and important, aspect of the much more all-encompassing DSS notion of a knowledge system. Knowledge-Based An organization in which the primary, driving activity Organization is the management of knowledge. Knowledged-based An AI term that is typically taken to be synonymous with System the notion of an expert system. Of course, management information systems and conventional decision support systems are "knowledge-based" (i.e., concerned with the representation and processing of knowledge). Knowledge The conversion of one representation of (used by a Conversion particular program) into another representation of the same knowledge (that can be used by a different program). Knowledge Engineer A person (or group) that acquires reasoning knowledge from a human expert in the course building an expert system. From the broader DSS viewpoint, anyone who is concerned with building any kind of knowledge into a knowledge system can be considered to be a knowledge engineer. Knowledge The activity of representing and processing knowledge. Management Knowledge A type of software tool in which multiple knowledge Management management techniques are blended together in a balanced Environment way for use by end users and application software developers. Knowledge A technique for representing knowledge in terms of Management certain kinds of objects and for processing those Technique objects in various ways. Knowledge Software that furnishes a developer with one or more Management knowledge management techniques. Tool Knowledge The ability of a knowledge worker's workstation to work Preprocessing on responding to requests posed to the knowledge worker before the knowledge worker devotes attention to them. Knowledge The activity of presenting knowledge in one of many Presentation possible modes. Knowledge Actions that are taken to manipulate knowledge Processing representations (e.g., adding, modifying, deleting, and using them). Knowledge The way in which knowledge is symbolized and structured Representation (e.g., in computer memory). Knowledge The way in which a decision support system's problem Selection/ processor attempts to satisfy a user’s request: by Derivation knowledge or by deriving it. Knowledge System That subsystem of a decision support system in which all application-specific knowledge is represented for use by the problem-processing system. This includes knowledge of any or all types (e.g., descriptive, procedural, reasoning) represented in a variety of ways (e.g., as databases, spreadsheets, procedural solvers, rule sets, text, graphs, forms, templates). Knowledge Type A category or class of knowledge (e.g., descriptive knowledge, procedural knowledge). Knowledge Worker A person who manages various kinds of knowledge in the course of filling some role in an organization.
Language System The subsystem of a decision support system that consists of (or characterizes the class of) all acceptable problem statements. Learning The activity of altering a knowledge system. Linguistic Knowledge about languages used for communication Knowledge purposes. LISP A programming language that has been used for more than a quarter of a century by computer scientists who work in the AI field. It is oriented toward the processing of symbolic data represented as linked list structures (i.e., LIST Processing). A list structure is processed with various functions such as CAR (returns the first element of a list), CDR (returns all but the first element of a list), and CONS (prefixes one list to another). Local Area Network A communications system designed to allow transmissions among two or more devices (e.g., computers) within a small geographic area. Local DSS A decision support system designed to support ad hoc needs pertaining to some limited aspect of a main organizational function. LDSSs are often developed by their users. Logical Constant True or false. Logical Data The knowledge representation (as opposed to processing) Structuring aspect of a data model. Logical Expression An expression whose value (if it is known) is either true or false. Logical Function A function whose value is true or false. Logical Variable A variable whose value is presently either true or false. Loop A series of commands that can be executed repeatedly during the execution of a program; usually the commands involved in conditional iteration.
Machine Learning The ability for a computer system to alter its behavior through either supervised or unsupervised. Macro A name that is given to a sequence of keystrokes such that the name can be used instead of the keystroke sequence when interacting with computer software. Management Control A decision-making context in which decisions are concerned with ensuring the resources are acquired, utilized, and released to meet organizational objectives. Management An application system for keeping current records about Information some aspect of an organization or its environment. System Management Science The formal (e.g., mathematical) study of methods for solving managerial problems, from the operational to strategic level and including all functional areas of management. Management Science Software that implements one or more solvers devised by Package management scientists and requiring a particular data set format. Management Support A computer-based system that facilitates a manager’s System task (e.g., knowledge management, communication, decision-making tasks). Manager One who uses available resources to achieve some objective; a decision maker. Managerial The functions that a manager performs (e.g., planning, Functions organizing, commanding, coordinating, controlling). Managerial Roles The roles that a manager plays (e.g., interpersonal, informational, decisional). Map An overview of the documents linked in a hypertext knowledge management system. Marker A highlighted indicator in a hypertext document indicating a link to another document whose content is related to the passage containing the marker. Menu A collection of options available for user selection. Menu Management A knowledge management technique concerned with the storage and processing of knowledge about menus. Menu Options The items in a presented menu that are available for a system's user to select. Message A particular knowledge representation assembled by a sender for transmission to a receiver(s). Message System Computer/communication technology that accomplishes message passing among senders and receivers (e.g., electronic bulletin board, electronic mail). Meta-Knowledge Knowledge about knowledge. Model A solver; a problem statement for a solver; data input to a solver. Model Base A computerized collection of knowledge about models. Module A program that can be performed by other programs. Multiparticpant A decision support system that supports multiple DSS participants engaged in a decision-making task (or functions as one of the participants). Multiparticipant A task that involves multiple participants, each of Task which could be an individual, a computer, or some unit composed of persons and/or computers.
Natural Language A kind of user interface that allows the user to carry on a conversation with a computer-based system in much the same way as he or she would converse with another human. The system is able to learn new terms, understand new requests in the context of prior requests, overlook grammatical errors, and carry out actions implied by the conversation. Navigation The activity of following markers to find desired knowledge in a hypertext system. Negotiation A give-and-take interchange among multiple participants that proceeds until all agree on a particular alternative (or a breakdown occurs to terminate the negotiation). Negotiation A system that helps those involved in a negotiation to Support System reach an agreement. Nemawashi-based A decision-making process involving a coordinator’s Process efforts to achieve a consensus of participants across multiple levels of authority in an organization. Nested Integration The approach to software integration in which all secondary components are constrained to being used within the confines of a single dominant component. Network A collection of devices connected in such a way that they can communicate with each other via transmission of requests and/or knowledge; a type of data model that is less restrictive than the hierarchical in allowing direct representation and processing of one-to-many relationships. Network See virtual corporation. Organization Neural Network An approach to machine learning (inspired by biological studies of the brain and nervous system) in which simple processors are organized into layers. Collectively, they "learn" from experience by a process of adjusting weights that determine the activation levels of individual processors (i.e., "neurons"). Nominal Group A series of activities intended to aid group decision Technique making: individuals write down their own ideas, they are shared in a round-robin fashion, they are discussed in sequence, alternatives are individually listed and ranked, these votes are pooled to determine the group's decision. Nonliteral Element A position in a form where a value of a nonconstant expression can be presented or where a value can be accepted for assignment to a variable (e.g., working variable, field, cell). Nonprocedural Indicates that a procedure (i.e., a definite sequence of steps) is not specified. That is, there is no programming. Reasoning knowledge captured in the guise of a rule set's rules is nonprocedural. Queries are nonprocedural. Numeric Constant A number composed of digits, an optional decimal point, and sign. Numeric Expression An expression whose value (if it is known) is a number. The expression can involve numeric constants, numeric operators such as +, -, *, /, **, and MOD (modulus). Numeric Function A function that yields a numeric value with respect to its argument(s). Numeric Variable A variable whose value is presently a number. An integer variable is a special case of a numeric variable in that its value is an integer.
Object-Oriented A language for representing objects and processing those Language representations with various methods. The methods available for processing an object (e.g., a spreadsheet cell, a data base record, a graph, a form, a variable, etc.) depend on the nature of that object. Object Program A program whose commands are in a language that can be immediately understood (i.e., carried out) by a particular computer. Open Architecture An approach to software design in which the software can make use of the output from other software (imports), furnish inputs that can be used by other software (exports), run other software (as a host), and/or communicate with other computers. Operating System A common type of host software that controls the operation of a computer in such a way that other programs can be executed. Operation The portion of a system life cycle involving the use of an implemented system, including an evaluation of its practical capabilities. Operational A decision-making context in which decisions are Control concerned with ensuring that specific tasks are performed efficiently and effectively by operating personnel. Option One of the user-selectable processing alternatives presented in a menu. Optimize The decision strategy of choosing the alternative that gives the best overall value. Organization A system of resources structured by power centers according to some purpose within the context of some environment. Organization The particular relationships that exist among an Design organization’s managers (e.g., authority relationships, communication relationships). Organization An organization's roles, the relationships among them, Infrastructure and regulations governing the filling of roles and utilization of relationships. Organization The money, material, people, and knowledge that belong Resources to an organization. Organizational DSS A multiparticipant DSS designed to support a decision maker having a more elaborate infrastructure than a group (i.e., involving specialized roles, restricted communication patterns, differing authority levels). Organizing A managerial function concerned with selecting, training, assigning, and evaluating workers.
Packaging The part of a decision-manufacturing process concerned with determining appropriate presentations for responses. Parameter A term whose value, when a program is executed, influences the behavior of the program. Pattern A branch of artificial intelligence concerned with Recognition recognizing the meaning of a visual, audio, or data pattern. Picture A sequence of placeholders and possibly some literal symbols that control the appearance of a value as it is being displayed. Planning A managerial function concerned with making forecasts, formulating outlines of things to do, and identifying methods to accomplish them. Pointer An internal indicator telling where a record is located within a table or on disk. Power Center Those within an organization who direct the structuring of its resources. Preactions A portion of a rule consisting of actions that the inference engine will carry out before examining the rule's premise. Premise A portion of a rule composed of one or more conditions connected by Boolean operators such as AND, OR, XOR (exclusive OR), and NOT. If a rule's premise can be established as being true, then the rule's conclusion is valid. A premise is an example of a logical expression. Premise-Testing The strategy that an inference engine uses when trying Strategy to establish the truth of a rule's premise. Presentation Knowledge that control's the way in which presentations Knowledge are made. Presentation The component of a DSS that consists of all responses a System problem processor can make. Problem Definition An early part of system development involving a specification of what problems the system will address. Problem-Processing That subsystem of a decision support system that System accepts problems stated in terms of the language system and draws on the knowledge system in an effort to produce solutions. Problem Processor Same as problem-processing system. Problem The activity of detecting that a problem exists which Recognition needs to be solved exists which needs to be solved (e.g., in the course of decision making). Problem Solving The activity of manipulating knowledge to arrive at a solution for a stated problem. Problem Statement A user's request that characterizes the nature of a problem that a system is to solve. Procedure The step-by-step specification of how to accomplish some task. Also see program. Procedural Indicates that a procedure (i.e., an explicit sequence of steps) has been specified. A program has been devised stating, in detail, how to accomplish a task. Procedural Knowledge about how to produce a desired result by Knowledge carrying out a prescribed series of processing steps. Procedural Model A program that represents a piece of procedural knowledge about how to analyze some set of input data. When a procedural model (e.g., for regression analysis) is executed it carries out a prescribed algorithm and reports the results. Same as solver. PROLOG A programming language that has been used for more than a decade by computer scientists who work in the AI field. It is oriented toward processing Horn clause axioms (a particular kind of axiom allowed in first- order predicate calculus). These axioms are processed by a resolution theorem prover using the principle of unification. Protocol Analysis An approach to knowledge acquisition in which an expert "thinks aloud" for a knowledge engineer during the process of reasoning about particular problems. Prototype A sketchy, tentative, incomplete version of an envisioned system. It can be developed relatively quickly to get feedback about its features and feasibility.
Query A nonprocedural request (e.g., for some database manipulation to be performed). Query Language A nonprocedural language for exploring, and analyzing (e.g., "what if" processing) descriptive knowledge. Query Processing Software that transforms requests stated in a query System language into data manipulation commands that a database control system can execute. Question/Answer An interface style in which the system poses questions Interface to a user who must answer each question before processing proceeds.
Raw Materials Knowledge used in the making of decisions. Real-Time Computer A system that allows participants in a joint activity Conferencing to interact with each other at the same time through System their respective computers using text and graphical images. Reason The part of a rule that explains its rationale. Reasoning Knowledge Knowledge about what circumstances allow particular conclusions to be considered to be valid. Reasoning System A system that employs reasoning knowledge in the course of solving problems. Record A group of data values consisting of one value for each of a prescribed set of relational fields; an occurrence of a record type. Record-Keeping The activity of keeping records about some subject matter as a basis for subsequent retrieval and calculation. Record Type An aggregate of conceptually related fields that represents the attributes of some real-world object (concept or entity). Redevelopment The development of a new system to replace an existing one (in contrast to making incremental modifications to the existing system). Redundancy The repetition of the same field in multiple record types (e.g., as the means for representing relationships in a relational data base); the repetition of the same data value in multiple records. Regulations Constraints governing the assignment of participants to roles and the interactions that can occur among them. Relation Same as table. Relational Algebra The low-level access language whose commands produce new intermediate tables by operating on one or two existing tables. Relational Calculus The high-level access language whose commands operate on multiple tables simultaneously without requiring any intermediate tables. Relational A data base whose records are organized into tables that DataBase can be processed by either the relational algebra or relational calculus. Relationships between tables are represented by field redundancy. Relational Knowledge about those with whom interactions can occur Knowledge (e.g., a DSS’s knowledge about idiosyncracies of its users). Relational Operator The operator in a condition that relates one expression to another (e.g., , , =). Remote The transmission of requests and knowledge between two Communications computers that may be far apart geographically. Report Details The primary contents of a customized report in which each report detail adheres to the same form. Report Generation A technique of presenting descriptive and calculated (i.e., derived) knowledge in a customized manner without needing to write a program. Report Template A characterization of the layout and content of a type of report. Request An element of a DSS's language system. Resource A manager's effort at arranging an organization’s Structuring resources so as to accomplish its purpose with a high degree of productivity (i.e., with little waste of resources). Response An element of a DSS's presentation system. Retrieval Service A service that lets a subscriber link his or her computer to a network to allow retrieval of knowledge held in a remote computer's files. Reverse Reasoning Same as backward chaining. Rigor An indication of how exhaustive an inference engine is in considering candidate rules. Will all be considered (full rigor) or is it possible for some competing rules to be disregarded? Role A prescribed set of activities and duties to be performed within an organization. Rule A named fragment of reasoning knowledge consisting of a premise and a conclusion. In addition, a rule may have other attributes such as a textual description and an internal comment. Rule Base The collection of all rule sets available to an inference engine. Rule Comment A developer's documentation on the nature of a rule. Rule Management A technique of knowledge management concerned with rule representation and processing. Rule Set A named collection of rules that represent reasoning knowledge about some problem area. A rule set is used by an inference engine to solve specific problems in that area. In addition to rules, a rule set may also contain an initialization sequence, a completion sequence, and variable descriptions. Rule Set Developer A person who uses a rule set development tool to capture an expert's reasoning knowledge in the guise of a rule set (see knowledge engineer). Rule Set Manager Software that is used to formally specify, modify, analyze, and compile a rule set. Rule Set The formal representation of an expert's reasoning Specification knowledge about some problem domain.
Satisfice A decision making strategy of selecting the first alternative discovered which happens to be good enough with respect to some minimal criteria. Schema The logical data structure designed for a particular application, representing all types of relevant objects (in terms of record types) and their interrelationships. Security Deals with the protection of knowledge from unauthorized disclosure, modification, and usage. Selection Order The order in which the competing rules remaining for a group of candidate rules are to be considered (e.g., based on relative rule priorities, costs, positions, numbers of unknown variables in premises, etc.). Semantic Net A graphical representation of binary relationships between objects. Each node in the net represents an object. Two nodes are related by an arrow that points from one to the other. The arrow is labeled to indicate the semantics of the relationship. The postrelational data model's logical structuring facilities have a great deal in common with semantic nets. Semantics The meaning of a symbol, expression, or relationship; the meaning of a representation. Semiprocedural Requests that are neither procedural nor nonprocedural. Shell A kind of expert system development tool consisting of two stand-alone pieces of software: a rule set manager and an inference engine capable of reasoning with rule sets built with the rule set manager; a kind of host software for executing other software. Software Designing a problem processor to allow the use of Integration multiple knowledge management techniques via a single decision support system. Solver A program that solves problems of a particular type in response to corresponding problem statements. Solver Management A knowledge management technique concerned with representing and processing solver modules. Solver Module A solver that may be used with other solver modules to form a larger solver. Sort Key One or more fields whose values in records are used as a basis for sorting those records. Source Program A program written in a language that a computer's hardware cannot directly execute. The source program is either compiled into an object program whose commands the machine can understand or its commands are interpreted one at a time by another piece of software. Spreadsheet A collection of cells whose values can be displayed on the console screen. By changing cell definitions and having all cell values reevaluated, a user can readily observe the effects of those changes. Spreadsheet A knowledge management technique concerned with Management representing knowledge in terms of spreadsheets and processing those representations. SQL Same as structured query language. Staff Assistant An individual who assists a manager (e.g., as a human decision support system). Stand-Alone Tool A software tool that supports one knowledge management technique in isolation from other techniques. State The structure and content of an organization's monetary, human, material, and knowledge resources. Strategic Planning A decision-making context in which decisions are concerned with establishing organizational purposes, determining objectives, and setting policies on the handling of resources. String Constant A string of text composed of alphabetic characters, digits, punctuation, and/or other recognizable symbols. String Expression An expression whose value (if it is known) is a string of text. The expression can involve string constants, string variables, and/or string functions connected by the string concentration (+) operator. String Function A function that yields a text string value with respect to its arguments. String Variable A variable whose value is presently a string of text composed of alphabetic characteristics, digits, punctuation, and/or other recognizable symbols. Structured A coordination method that channels interactions that Argumentation can occur among participants by requiring them to explicitly represent and adhere to a pattern of arguments and counter-arguments about decision alternatives. Structured The result of a routine or repetitive decision-making Decision process. Structured Query A query language designed for processing descriptive Language knowledge represented as relational data tables; a collection of commands that, in addition to the query capability, gives application developers data management capabilities for creating and manipulating tables of data. Symbol An arrangement (e.g., visual, electronic) that represents some elemental piece of knowledge. Synergistic The approach to software integration in which each Integration component can be used independently or multiple components can be used in tandem to produce an overall effect that is greater than the sum of the individual component effects. There are no clear dividing lines between component capabilities and no component limits the use of any other. Syntax The way in which symbols are (or can be) arranged to represent relationships among pieces of knowledge; the form of a representation. System An organized collection of components, designed and coordinated for the purpose of filling some defined role. System Analysis The activity of studying a phenomenon or a need in order to more fully understand it and to determine ways to improve or address it. System Design The activity of formulating a plan to guide the implementation of a system that will meet the requirements identified by a systems analyst. System Development A systematic approach to developing computing systems, Life Cycle especially large scale systems built by professional developers. System Knowledge A system's knowledge of itself.
Table A named collection of records of some record type. Each record is composed of one data value for each of the record type's fields. A table is not a file, but may exist in one or more operating system files. Task Support A computer-based system that supports a human or System computer in performance of a task (e.g., a knowledge management task, decision task, communication task). Team A hierarchically designed organization in which there is one deciding participant and one or more supporting participants. In contrast to group, there is clear differentiation of decision-making authority, a division of labor into distinctly specialized duties, and a restricted pattern of communication among participants. Technological The computer/communication that exists within an Infrastructure organization to support the organizational infrastructure. Template A piece of presentation knowledge that indicates the visual layout of a report's contents and the sources of values that can appear in particular locations; a piece of procedural knowledge consisting of spreadsheet cell definitions. Terminal A device for interacting with a computer by entering requests, entering knowledge, and viewing knowledge (e.g., console screen with keyboard). Terminal Emulation A kind of remote communications in which one computer behaves as a terminal of another computer. Test Case A sample problem and solution that can be used to test whether a system (e.g., an expert system) behaves as desired. Text Management A technique of knowledge management in which knowledge is represented and processed as pieces of text. Text Processing The activity of manipulating (creating, altering, viewing) passages of text. The formatting capabilities of a text processor are not as extensive as those of a word processor. Text Presentations System responses that appear as passages of text. Throwaway A prototype developed for exploratory purposes without Prototype an intent of modifying it so as to evolve into an operational system. Time Limit A constraint on decision making that requires it to be accomplished in a certain amount of time. Tool A class of software that operates within a host but is not oriented toward any particular application. A software tool is used by computer professionals to build application systems and by nonprofessionals to do-it-yourself computing. Top-Down Design An approach to designing a system in which the major characteristics are specified first. The process is then repeated with respect to each of these, and so forth, until all details are fully specified. Tracing The activity of following step-by-step through some stated logic (e.g., in a program or rule set) to see whether the results at each step conform to what is intended. When deviations are identified they indicate where the logic needs to be modified. Transaction The ability of a data processing system to produce Generation transactions such as checks, bills, shipping labels, etc. Transaction A particular event such as a sale to a customer, receipt of a payment, shipment of a product, paying an employee, etc.
Unilateral A decision made by a single individual as opposed to Decision requiring the agreement of multiple participants. Unknown Expression An expression whose value is not known because the value of at least one of the expression's variables is unknown. Unknown Threshold This is the certainty factor level below which a variable or premise value is considered to be unknown. Unknown Variable A variable whose value is presently unknown. Unstructured The result of rare or novel decision making processes. Decision User The person (or machine) that uses a program executing on some computer hardware. The user may be a computer professional or an end user. User-Friendly A system's interface that its user judges to be easy to learn, understand, and interface and use; an interface in which the system's LS is a subset of a user's PS and the system's PS is a subset of the user's LS. User Interface The means by which a user is able to interact with an executing program. User Testing A stage in expert system development in which the system's prospective user checks the interface to see whether it is appropriate. Utility The usefulness (clarity, meaning, relevance, importance) of some body of knowledge.
Validity The accuracy, certainty, and consistency of some body of knowledge. Variable A named object whose value can change. A variable's present value is referenced via the variable name. Variable That portion of a rule set consisting of descriptions Descriptions of the natures of variables used in the rule set's rules. Each variable can be described in terms of such characteristics as its find actions and the timing of those actions. Variable The characterizations of variables involved in a rule Specifications set. Virtual A collection of separate firms that function as Corporation integral parts of a greater organization. Virtual Field A field whose values are calculated as needed rather than actually being stored in a data base.
Web Browser Software on a desktop computer that gives access to the World Wide Web. Web Server A computer that manages a knowledge storehouse at a site on the World Wide Web and handles the distribution of its contents across the Internet. "What If" A kind of analysis in which a user examines the impacts Processing of certain potential changes without actually making changes in the knowledge system's basic contents. Word Processing The most elaborate and extensive variety of text management, of primary interest for heavy-duty document preparation. Working Memory Short-term memory; a portion of a problem processing system that temporarily stores knowledge representations needed for the current work of the problem processor software. World Wide Web The Internet's collection of thousands of hyperlinked sites, each with a storehouse of knowledge that can be presented in graphical, multimedia fashion, or desktop computers that have access to the Web.
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