Machos, Mistresses, Madonnas: Contesting the Power of Latin American Gender Imagery (Melhuus and Stolen, 1996) challenges the stereotypical images of the dominating male and the subservient woman. In my opinion, this gender prototype is meaningful in order to understand and study homosexuality in Latin America. The book looks at el poder (power) in a rather symbolic approach in various regional socio-cultural contexts in Latin America (e.g., Mexico and Ecuador). Three themes surface in this work including the Latin American macho: an attempt to undermine the unitary notion of the hegemonic Latin American male. The other two address power as an article through which dominating discourse and labeling processes of masculinity operate and the power of gender to speak to other issues (Melhuus and Stolen, 1996, pp. 3-4). In some ways gender can operate as a vehicle in which morality speaks. Overall, the book illustrates the multivocality of gender in Latin America and the influence of ethnicity, language, nationalism, and politics on gender issues.

Latin American Lesbian Research

As I have stated, anthropological research on Latin American lesbianism remains confined to a limited number of sources. The literature and research, however, is on the ascent. Most of what does exist documents liberation movements, identity constructions (in the face of machismo), and feminism. Thayer (1997) provides an account of lesbian movements in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. She stresses democratization, diversity of identity constructions, and associations with other social tides such as the feminist movement. One can also find anthropological work on the lesbian movement in Mexico in an edited volume, Female desires: same-sex relations and transgender practices across cultures (Blackwood and Wieringa, 1999). In this book, Norma Mogrovejo (1999) describes the difficulties of documenting lesbian movements in Mexico due to the variance and change in political, economic, and social spheres. In particular, she discusses the ethnic pluralism, multiculturalism, economic crises, and poverty. To study the development of a lesbian movement in Mexico requires Mogrovejo to draw not only from anthropological material, but also from historical, sociological, political, and archeological data.

Zavella's article, "'Playing with Fire:' The Gendered Construction of Chicana/Mexicana Sexuality" (1997) portrays personal identity struggles in the face of machismo and marianismo Mexican gendered concepts. Zavella analyzes the historical and religious origins of gender and most effectively provides examples of native language, behavior, and opinions (reflections) through direct quotes from case studies. Of particular interest is the relationship between machismo, power, and lesbianism. Zavella (1997) describes Maria Perez as drawn to the male gender and sexual script (machismo) and who through play was able to assert authority and power by assuming male roles. Perez herself admits that "in the effort not to feel fucked, I became the fucker, even with women" (Zavella, 1997, p. 400). Clearly, the concept of machismo inherently affects the creation of sexual identities for both males and females. Still more ethnographic research is needed on the connections and effects of machismo on lesbian identity in Latin America.

Summary

Table 1 summarizes the articles cited by country and by subject matter. The articles are indicated by their citation number in the complete bibliography. Table 1 clearly shows the concentration of research on the subject of homosexuality and on studies in Brazil, Cuba, and Mexico. It also shows the relative dearth of research regarding lesbianism in Latin America.

Conclusions

The growth of homosexuality research in Latin America opens new spaces for anthropological (especially for gay/lesbian bilingual anthropologists) inquiry and fieldwork. Most of the recent ethnographic information describes gay/lesbian liberation movements, transvestitism and HIV/AIDS, and constructions of male homosexual identities. Brazil and Mexico receive the most investigative attention. Other countries found in the literature include Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Argentina, and Cuba. Virtually nothing exists on homosexuality in other Caribbean countries, Central American countries (Honduras, Panama, Belize, or El Salvador) or South American countries (Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay, Colombia, Suriname, Bolivia, etc.). Indeed, more fieldwork and research on homosexuality is needed in Latin America. Specifically, accounts of same-sex sexual behavior need to answer questions about intra-cultural diversity, individual meaning, the individual or shared salience of categories, and what the relationship is between what people do and what they say (Murray, 1997, p. 5).