"Teaching at UK" Vol. 2, No. 2 (Fall, 1995), Newsletter for the Teaching and Learning Center, University of Kentucky

Teaching at UK

Vol. 2, No. 2 (Fall 1995)

Table of Contents
Constructing Concepts	Software to Facilitate Active Learning	Spotlight on Counseling and Testing Center	TLC Library Resources

Constructing Concepts: the Role of Active Learning

by John Christopher, Physics, University of Kentucky

Active learning in the classroom? Active learning in large classes? Many of us teach classes that have more than 100 students. Many would say that lecturing is the only way such large classes can be approached. But is it? And, is it the best way for students to learn, really learn, abstract concepts?

As professors, one of the reasons we have chosen our profession is that we want to pass on the knowledge we have spent our lives gaining. For many of us one of the reasons that we chose to be professors is that we enjoy being the helper, the giver of knowledge, the authority. The traditional lecture fits in well with these faculty roles. We ourselves were most likely raised on lectures. We like lectures.

Most students like the traditional lecture for a number of reasons and some seem to learn our disciplines extremely well taking lecture classes. However, we must ask how much do students learn through the lecture itself? How much do they learn in other ways? How can we best help them to learn?

We can investigate what students are learning as well as discover how courses are helping students learn by listening closely to them. During discussions with students, they often want us, the "authorities," to tell them the answers. But when we focus on student learning, we are less interested in telling them about our knowledge than in listening and helping them construct their own knowledge.

The Case in Physics: What listening to students has revealed

A number of studies based on intensive interviews with students have tested students' conceptual understanding of the basic ideas of physics. Research results revealed that while lectures allowed students to learn basic definitions and solutions to certain physics problems, lectures did not usually help students learn concepts well. Students could perform reasonably well on tests, but when asked to apply their understanding of physics to a new situation, many experienced difficulty. They had developed neither sound concepts nor viable conceptual connections from passive listening to lectures and working problems similar to those in the text.

What else did the studies reveal? The studies underscored the staying power of students' ideas about how the world works. Such ideas originate in experiences early in childhood or arise later in life through experiences. One such common-sense concept arises from the everyday observation that an object moves when pushed. Our pushing an object causes it to have a velocity; when we stop pushing, the object comes to rest and its velocity becomes zero. This concept has allowed us to succeed in our everyday lives. Being told in a lecture that the net effect of forces on an object is to cause a change in velocity rather than simply give it a velocity runs counter to students' deeply rooted understanding of the world. Change does not come easily.

Effecting Change

The first step in helping students begin to change their pre-conceptions is to call up their current understandings. One strategy for doing this is to have students write a brief description of their understanding of a problem, discuss this in a small group, and then write down their revised understanding. The next step is to work an experiment that will allow students to compare their ideas with new observations. Or the ideas held by the students can be consciously compared with the understandings held by others. Dissonances between old understandings and new information should help students be more open to change. In some cases students can improve their understanding by building on and extending what they know already.

Simply TELLING students a fact which is not well connected with their extant ideas merely gives them a memorized fact to store. Often our beautiful lectures showing connections helps us to develop a deeper understanding of the material, but unless the students actively engage with the ideas and integrate them into an existing structure, then the new ideas remain something memorized and probably later forgotten.

How can we further help our students? We must understand the students' ideas and help them see the conflict between their ideas and what is observed. Any alternative explanation that we propose must be understandable and plausible, and it must be useful to them in better describing what is observed.

We must recognize that students' initial conceptions have worked well enough and are thus viewed as correct. If we belittle these ideas or simply demand that students accept our truths, then we encourage our students to give up really learning and thinking and to resort to memorization.

Students and "Truth"

What students believe about knowledge has a lot to do with how they approach their learning and studies. Much of their previous school work may have led them to believe that knowledge represents the memorized facts that they get from textbooks and lectures. The books and the teachers are the authorities, and they transmit the information to the students. Learning, in the minds of many students, has nothing to do with their own ideas or those of their fellow students, their own judgment and analysis.

Part of our job is to help our students become their own authority as they make sense of their experiences. At the same time we can also help them by introducing them to the ways of expression that society has developed. Knowledge is an outcome of the interplay between language and society. Students left alone would ultimately discover ideas about their world but might express them in such different ways that dialogue and exchange would be difficult.

The "Conceptquiz"

To implement techniques based on these ideas into my "lecture" classes, I use group discussions in a number of ways. One follows the "conceptquiz" idea developed by Eric Mazur. Three or four times during each class I give multiple choice questions which are designed so that the alternate options are often the common-sense concepts students carry with them. Students answer first on their own and rate how confident they are in the correctness of their response. After discussing the question with their neighbors, they again respond to the question and record their confidence level. This technique does not take up much time, but results in lively discussion. I usually collect responses on scan forms for later analyses. (The technology which would allow the instantaneous display of responses is unfortunately not yet available at UK.)

I have asked my students in a survey if they thought that the daily questions helped them learn the material. On a scale from 1 to 5 where 1 is no help at all and 5 is helped significantly, the average was 4.1! A strong endorsement. On the same survey they were asked if they thought the time could have been better spent on other things and there was very strong negative response.

A final exam that Mazur had given to a class taught in the traditional manner was given to a class taught using "conceptquizzes." The students who had learned using "conceptquizzes" did significantly better. They had learned concepts better and also did better working problems--this despite the fact that little class time was devoted to problem solving!

Problem-Solving in Groups

Problem-solving instruction in physics often amounts to the instructor smoothly going through problem-solution presentations on a blackboard. The students diligently copy these solutions. I prefer having the students work through the solutions in groups. In smaller classes, the student groups can present the solutions on the board. As the solutions are discussed by the students, I ask questions to help highlight what I think are important points, but try to avoid ever answering a question for them. Students need to believe in their own authority.

This semester, in a class of 120 students I am having students work regularly in groups of three on "rich" problems. One or two challenging problems are stated so that students have greater personal interest in finding the solutions. Working with a group on "real-life" problems is a most beneficial experience since our students will soon be operating in a similar manner in the work place.

Group Work using Worksheets

Another effective way to encourage students to construct their own knowledge is to use group discussions guided by worksheets. During the recitation class, students work together on worksheets designed to guide them to discuss important conceptual issues. These worksheets, called tutorials, were developed by Lillian McDermott at the University of Washington. A principle guiding the use of these tutorials is that the instructor never directly answers questions, but rather guides students by asking questions. Based on surveys of student opinions in my classes, students both recognize and appreciate the enhanced learning that takes place with tutorials in comparison to the traditional recitation class.

Probing for students' existing concepts, listening to their answers, asking questions, letting students observe, discuss and think---these are the hallmarks of active learning.

Prof. Christopher has agreed to open his tutorials to interested observers. Time: 9-9:50 or 10-10:50, Thursdays. Place: Room 163 Chemistry-Physics Bldg.
Everyone is also invited to observe or participate in the tutorial training/preparation session Wednesdays from 1-1:50 in CP 167 during which time the pretest results are reviewed and the tutorials are worked through with the teaching assistants.

Works Cited:

(A copy of each of these works is available in the Teaching and Learning Center's library, 7 Gillis Building.)

Mazur, Eric (1993), Peer Instruction.: Paper presented at the Conference on the Introductory Physics Course, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.
Pfundt, Helga and Reinders Duit, eds. (1994).: Students' Alternative Frameworks and Science Education: A Bibliography. 4th edition. Kiel: Institute for Science Education.
Shaffer, Peter S. and Lillian C. McDermott. (1992).: Research as a Guide for Curriculum Development: An Example from Introductory Electricity. Part II: Design of Instructional Strategies. American Journal of Physics 60, 1003-1013.

Example of a "Conceptquiz"
Question 1: A person is riding upward at constant velocity in an elevator. The person is standing on a spring scale and the scale gives a reading. Which of the following is true?

The scale reading will equal the weight of the person.
The scale reading will be higher than the weight of the person.
The scale reading will be lower than the weight of the person.
None of the above.

Software to Facilitate Active Learning: Computer-Based Concept Mapping Using Inspiration®

by Bill Burke, Associate Director, Teaching and Learning Center, University of Kentucky

Christopher's article in this newsletter points out the need for active learning strategies to assist students in constructing conceptual connections in a discipline. Cognitive psychology research has provided considerable insight into the way that learners acquire and organize knowledge. Constructivist theories of learning place the learner in an active role of knowledge construction. The learner approaches a domain with some prior knowledge about the subject matter constructed from their personal experiences, schooling, and social interactions. Some of this prior knowledge is incomplete or at odds with current disciplinary paradigms. Naive or alternative conceptions ("misconceptions") frequently exist. The learner actively constructs meaning. Concepts change as the learner attempts to connect new information with existing conceptual frameworks. (Tobin, 1993)

According to constructivist theories of learning, conceptual change in learners should be facilitated by activities such as having students: actively engaged in processing the material; confronting their own conceptual frameworks; confronting, presenting and defending alternative perspectives; linking new concepts to old; and using strategies that encourage both metacognition (being aware of and monitoring one's thinking) and higher order thinking (e.g., analysis, synthesis, evaluation).

Concept mapping can be a powerful teaching and learning tool for constructing and assessing one's understanding of a discipline in a graphic way. A concept map consists of a spatial arrangement of concepts (which can be names of things, ideas, or processes contained in boxes or circles) connected by labeled links. Labeling the links is important because it requires students to make the relationships between concepts explicit. Some of the concepts can be examples or results of other concepts. The map might start with a key central concept from which other concepts radiate or it might be a more hierarchical or branching tree kind of map. The structure depends on the content involved and the nature of the mapping assignment.

How can concept mapping enhance learning? The following theoretical reasons have been proposed: 1) reorganization of knowledge obtained from lecture or text, 2) seeking relationships between concepts and making them explicit, 3) increasing one's depth of processing, 4) chunking of information, and 5) placing concepts in spatial relationships and physical proximity (Fisher, K. M., Faletti, J., Patterson, H., Thornton, R., Lipson, J., & Spring, C., 1990).

Computer-based concept mapping programs provide a number of advantages over paper and pencil approaches. These include: 1) flexibility and ease of modifying maps as conceptual changes occur, 2) ability to generate copies of maps to experimentally modify while leaving the original intact, 3) capability of producing map copies for the instructor and for all group members in a collaborative learning setting (hard copies or computer files), 4) ease of storage and transport (one 3.5" floppy disk for many maps versus multiple pieces of paper), 5) accessibility or privacy of maps on a computer server through the use of passwords (versus stacks of paper maps lying in a room), and 6) ease of converting maps into handouts or overheads for class discussion.

Novak and Gowin (1984) provide a good argument for the computer-based approach and especially the advantages of flexibility and ease of modification:

"Ideas that are novel, powerful and profound, are very difficult for us to think about; we need time and some mediating activity to help us. Reflective thinking is controlled doing, involving a pushing and pulling of concepts, putting them together and separating them again. Students need practice in reflective thinking just as teams need time to practice a sport. The making and remaking of concept maps and sharing them with others can be seen as a team effort in the sport of thinking. The computer programs we are now developing may facilitate such practice in thinking with concept maps." (Learning How to Learn, p. 19)

One such computer application is called Inspiration®. It is available in both a Macintosh and Windows version and is a dynamic, enjoyable, and easy to use piece of software that has considerable potential for teaching, learning, and assessment. The user can quickly and easily generate concepts, move them around the screen, and connect them with labeled links. Each concept also has a text window that can be opened allowing the user to elaborate on the concept with a definition and examples. Hard copies can be made of both the maps and their associated text allowing users of this application to share and discuss print-outs of their work.

The Teaching and Learning Center has both Macintosh and Windows versions installed for demonstration. I have used this application in the teaching of biology in the form of weekly mapping assignments that were then collaboratively discussed and found that it enhanced student comprehension and application of the concepts. The open discussion on constructing knowledge on November 13 (see the calendar of events) will include some examples of this project. In addition, I would be happy to discuss and demonstrate the application at the Teaching and Learning Center.

References

Fisher, K. M., Faletti, J., Patterson, H., Thornton, R., Lipson, J., & Spring, C. (1990).: Computer-based concept mapping. Journal of College Science Teaching, 19 , 347-352.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984).: Learning How to Learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Tobin, K. (Ed.). (1993).: The Practice of Constructivism in Science Education. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Spotlight On Services: In Support of the Academic Mission

The University Counseling and Testing Center
The Center staff has developed and implemented innovative programs aimed at the retention of undergraduate students and the enhancement of the undergraduate experience. The Counseling Center's Learning Skills Program offers a wide range of programs from Learning Skills Workshops designed to teach principles of effective learning to Academic Help Sessions where free tutors are available for specific subject areas.

All Center staff are available for outreach and classroom programs addressing a variety of topics, e.g., learning effectiveness, time management, test-taking strategies. Last year a total of 6,512 students, faculty and staff participated in 151 Learning Skills programs. The Center is committed to offering these educational and preventative programs to the University community.

The Center has a staff of trained psychologists whose primary function is to help UK students with personal concerns. Individual counselling is available on many sorts of problems, from the professional (adjustment to college life, career/major choice) to the personal (depression, alcohol/substance abuse).

The psychologists and learning skills experts may be contacted by faculty throughout the year for formal or informal consultations regarding students, teaching styles and the classroom environment. Many staff members have worked with faculty in a consultative role in dealing with problematic students, classroom dynamics, learning styles and teaching strategies, race and gender issues in the classroom, among other concerns. Schedules permitting, the staff is available for classroom lectures on a variety of topics.

SPOTLIGHT ON MEDIA:

Books:
Meyers, C. and Jones, T.B. (1993).
Promoting Active Learning: Strategies for the College Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
A growing body of research today points to active learning strategies in which students listen and talk, write, read, and reflect as they become more directly engaged in the instructional process. These strategies are a means to engage students, encourage critical thinking and to improve the general quality of teaching and learning. This book offers a practical guide to successful strategies which promote such active learning. A wide range of teaching tools is presented. These include problem-solving exercises, cooperative student projects, informal group work, simulations, case studies, role-playing and other activities that require students to apply what they are learning. Promoting Active Learning illustrates experiences and supplies tips from teachers in a variety of disciplines.

Video:
"Critical Thinking, Teaching and Learning" 1993.
49 minutes.
Participants in a Critical Literacy project discuss various aspects of the "Critical Thinking" movement -- from its roots in the work of Bloom, Dewey, Bruner, etc., to the benefits this new model has brought them and their students. After defining critical thinking, the group focuses on student learning, noting that critical thinking principles aim to

help students recognize the internal logic of a particular discipline,
get them to think about thinking (metacognition) and
develop necessary background knowledge.

The discussants relate how they have come to see the development of their students' critical thinking abilitites as the second "content" of their courses. Tools for developing active learning/critical thinking are presented.
Summary: A good, basic introduction to Critical Thinking issues.

For more on TLC's Library Resources, go to Teaching at UK, Volume 2, No. 4.

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