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The research on learning styles is diverse and extensive. Three models particularly useful for helping to shape classroom practice are those proposed by David Kolb, William Perry, and the educators loosely termed "constructivists."
HOW STUDENTS LEARN
Learning Styles and Cycles - David Kolb
Kolb (1984, 1994) posits that individuals have different learning strengths or styles, thus, some may learn best by watching and listening, others by thinking, by doing or by feeling. The Kolb Learning Style Inventory examines learning preferences and plots these preferences along two axes: one which charts a preference for concrete experience versus abstract conceptualization, and another active experimentation versus reflective observation. Not only individuals, but also academic disciplines tend to favor certain modes of inquiry over others.
Kolb goes beyond mere categorization when he proposes that, although a specific learner or discipline may favor one modality, optimal learning involves an experiential learning cycle consisting of four processes each of which must be present for learning to occur most completely. Within this cycle, a learner becomes personally involved in a specific experience (concrete experience), reflects on that experience from a number of viewpoints (reflective observations), draws some logical conclusions and abstractions (abstract conceptualization), and then acts on these by testing the abstraction (active experimentation) to produce new concrete experiences. The cycle then repeats.
Svinicki and Dixon (1987) describe how one could use Kolb's model to design instructional activities that support different aspects of the learning cycle as well as tap into the learning styles preferred by individual students. Following are sample teaching activities for each of the modalities. To foster:
Epistemological Development - William Perry's Stages of Adult Cognitive Development
The relationship between learners and knowledge is central to the work of William Perry in his influential Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years (1970). Perry traces the development of male college students' beliefs about the nature of knowledge and themselves as knowers during their undergraduate years at Harvard. More recently, research focusing on heterogenous groups of women underscores that Perry's model, while opening fruitful insights, must be amended or expanded in order to include other epistemological perspectives which, for example, are based on empathy and connectedness as paths towards knowledge (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule, 1986).
Perry observed that freshmen often reported a dualistic view of knowledge: information was either right or wrong. Knowledge was seen as a collection of facts known to experts. The role of the professor, as such an authority, was to dispense this knowledge. The students' role as learners was to passively receive this truth, keeping quiet until they knew what the correct answer was.
When the students' belief in absolute truth was shaken, they began to entertain the idea that there are multiple truths and that knowledge is a matter of subjective opinion. During this period, learners began to develop trust in their own "inner voice" as a source of knowledge and thus based their judgment on intuition, feeling, and common sense, often regarding one opinion as valuable as another. Perry found that the majority of his undergraduates were at this stage.
During the next stage of development, Perry saw that some students recognized that opinions could differ in quality. They came to learn that they must follow a process whereby they use reason to objectively analyze a number of factors and then present a cohesive argument for a point of view. They saw that "truth" was relative to the frame of reference used to evaluate an issue. Less than half the Harvard seniors interviewed subscribed to this perspective.
Perry postulated a final stage wherein individuals made a commitment to a position with no external assurances of correctness. The learners recognized that all truth--both in and outside of the academy--existed in an historical, cultural context.
These stages affect students' observable classroom behaviors. Whereas learners in the "dualist" stage tend to be quiet and accepting, learners in the "multiplist" stage will tend to argue basing their arguments on the premise that all opinions are equal. "Dualists" may demand that he authority give them information to memorize and will tend towards dogmatic, moralistic assertions of right/wrong when they debate a point. "Relativists", on the other hand, will debate using logical analysis and other critical thinking tools.
By recognizing that learners are at different stages and that they change their beliefs about knowledge, an instructor can make informed course decisions. Textbooks, course goals, assignments, exams, and evaluation criteria can be chosen to both reflect the learners' current level as well as with a view towards helping them develop to the next level if appropriate. For example, an instructor can check if a given textbook up for adoption presents material only in a non-problematic way or if it presents alternative perspectives and controversies. The instructor can decide if the desired goals of a course match the likely developmental level of the learners; i.e., are the students expected to be dualists (memorize information), multiplists (have opinions) or relativists (think critically).
In her review of the Perry schema and other developmental models, Kurfiss (1994) observes that certain college settings appear to encourage epistemological development. A college's culture can foster development towards the critical-thinking, relativist stage when:
Constructivism
Constructivist theories of learning argue that learners must construct meaning (Glynn et al., 1991; Tobin, 1993). Although practioners of different theories of constructivism will debate how much of this process is a social versus individual endeavor and to what degree the constructed knowledge is idiosyncratic, some common threads run through most of these epistemological models:
Basic Principles
One of the most important assets for an instructor to bring to the culturally diverse classroom is a high level of self-awareness. Self-awareness is the recognition of how one's needs, experiences and belief systems affect the choices one makes and the interactions one has with students. For example, instructors who appreciate different cultures will be more likely to enrich student learning by incorporating course content that recognizes the experiences and contributions of all groups. Instructors who are aware of and struggle with their own biases are generally more sensitive to student needs and more successful in building student-teacher relationships which foster academic excellence. Instructors can increase their level of self-awareness by participating in diversity seminars or workshops offered by the University, by listening carefully and non-defensively to feedback from minority students, and by engaging in dialogue with other faculty members sensitive to diversity issues. (See Patricia Hyjer Dyk, "Infusing a Global Perspective into an American Family Course" in Teaching at UK, Vol. 2, No. 4).
Knowledge of other cultures is also critical in creating an inclusive classroom. This knowledge has many dimensions:
Along with heightened self-awareness and knowledge of cultural diversity, respect for students is an essential ingredient in creating a successful learning community. Culturally competent instructors treat each student as a person with value. Students neither want to be singled out just because they are members of a particular group nor can they be expected to be the authority on all people of that group, i.e., asked to speak for all people of color or all members of their gender. It is also important to remember that students who share group membership often come from different social, political, economic, and educational backgrounds. Likewise, students have differing personal goals, sense of identity, and learning styles. Attention to differing learning styles suggests incorporating a variety of teaching approaches while maintaining academic standards.
Effective teaching practices that underscore respect for students include:
One final aspect of the inclusive classroom involves the teacher as role model. The very nature of teaching means that the way the instructor addresses issues of cultural and student diversity in the classroom affects not only minority students but all the students in class. Presentation of course content in a non-biased manner, a willingness to entertain competing viewpoints, a reflective and composed response to confrontation and controversy, and sensitivity to students with different needs and from varying backgrounds provide important behavioral models for students. For example, when students share uninformed opinions during class discussions, the instructor can demonstrate effective and respectful ways to correct stereotypes and challenge erroneous assumptions. Students learn from what the instructor does. Allowing students to observe appropriate behaviors during dialogues and encouraging them to practice these behaviors in the classroom provides a learning experience that extends beyond the classroom walls.
Some Particulars
Regardless of group status, race, gender, disability or citizenship, all students present in a class have met the required academic criteria for admission to UK. For example, despite the stereotypes about Eastern Kentucky in general and Eastern Kentucky students in particular, students who come to UK from the 49 mountain counties have the same ACT scores and GPAs as students from the other counties in Kentucky. Moreover, contrary to the stereotype, Eastern Kentucky students are just as likely to finish their four years at UK and somewhat more likely to go on for professional degrees than other Kentucky students.
Many students from certain geographical regions, either rural or urban, have attended under-funded schools. This does not mean they are less capable than other students. It may mean, however, that while more-advantaged students have had chemistry courses in classrooms equipped with the latest lab equipment, other students may not have had labs or even chemistry courses because they were not available in their high schools. These students may need extra attention to catch up.
Accent and/or grammar are not indicators of intelligence. Due to countless stereotypical images in the national media and entertainment industry, many Americans tend to equate some minority-associated accents with subnormal intelligence. This stereotype may be at work in subtle ways among the UK community.
Most classes will consist of only a small number of African-American or other minority students. If the course includes a group assignment, the instructor usually should not make a special effort to separate the minority students. The instructor should be aware, however, that students of minority groups may come together on an assignment just as students from dominant groups always have chances to work with each other. Sensitivity to the climate of a particular class is important.
A student's hesitancy to speak in class does not automatically prove that he or she is unprepared. Perhaps the student is the only member of a minority in the class. Or perhaps the size of the class is intimidating. Students may need time to adjust to the class and to recognize that the instructor has created a safe and accepting environment. Ground rules need to be provided that allow the class to discuss multi-cultural issues safely and meaningfully. Students who are easily intimidated or fear conflict may be more likely to explore controversial issues if there are assurances that destructive or extremely offensive interactions will not be permitted.
Research has shown that certain students--because of their race, gender, or ethnicity--are less likely to be called on in class and that students with certain group memberships tend to be interrupted more during class discussion. A self-reflective instructor can avoid these tendencies.
By including multiple perspectives in course content and encouraging students to debate issues from differing viewpoints, an instructor can strengthen both students' critical thinking abilities and global perspectives. See "Selected bibliography on Internationalizing the Classroom" by Angene Wilson (International Affairs, UK) in Teaching at UK, Vol. 2, No. 4. There are many publications for classroom use which provide competing arguments on controversial topics. For example, the Greenhaven Press offers the Opposing Viewpoints¾ series on topics such as social justice, civil liberties, and economics in America. The Teaching and Learning Center has a collection of articles and books which examine inclusive curricular models, student diversity, and multiple learning styles. See abstract of Learning Strategies and Learning Styles in Teaching at UK, Vol. 1, No. 1.
Disruption: College teachers rarely have to face discipline issues in their classrooms. Occasionally, however, an instructor may have a student whose behavior disrupts the class. The following process has proven effective.
Distress: Students often encounter a great deal of stress during the course of their academic experience. While most students cope successfully with the challenges, an increasing number of students find that the various pressures of life are unmanageable or unbearable. Faculty members and teaching assistants often encounter these distressed students in their offices and classrooms. Since these students may not have considered psychological intervention, an instructor's role is a crucial one in identifying and referring students whose distress is debilitating. The Testing and Counseling Center can help an instructor identify the signs and symptoms of varying levels of stress.
If, after talking and listening carefully to a student in private, an instructor feels that there exists an emergency situation, the Counseling and Testing Center can arrange an immediate appointment. A situation is an emergency when there is imminent danger of physical harm to self or others and/or if there is disabling emotional distress, e.g. insomnia, uncontrollable crying, agitation, etc. See also TLC's 7 Gillis Building.
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