Teaching Strategies (con't)
ENHANCING STUDENT INVOLVEMENT
This section has three parts:
The Teaching and Learning Center has assembled Re: Sources packets titled "Active Learning," "Collaborative Learning/Learning in Groups," and "Generating Discussion," each containing several articles pertaining to those topics. Contact the Center if you would like copies or want information about the Center's library holdings on these topics.
Definitions and Rationale
As mentioned in the previous section, research indicates that audience attention to a lecture wanes quickly, within 10 to 20 minutes, and that the information contained in a lecture is neither acquired nor retained well. The sheer quantity of information covered by a lecturer does not stand in direct proportion to the amount learned by the student. One way to boost learning is to combine a lecture with opportunities for the students to reflect on and use the material. Thus, the same amount of material might be learned even though less material was "covered." Skills such as being able to think critically, inquire into values, and work in groups can be acquired along with the lecture information if active and cooperative learning techniques supplement the lecture.
The term active learning is used for all classroom strategies that involve students' doing things and thinking about what they are doing (cf. Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Myers & Jones, 1993; Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1991). See also "Constructing Concepts: The Role of Active Learning" by John Christopher (Physics, UK) in Teaching at UK, Vol. 2, No. 2.
Characteristics of active learning:
- students are involved in more than listening;
- students are engaged in activities (e.g., reading, discussing, writing);
- less emphasis is placed on transmitting information and more on developing students' skills;
- students are involved in higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation);
- students apply content and learn by doing; and
- emphasis is placed on students' exploration of their own attitudes and values.
Technology can be an important teaching aid in strategies for active learning: Susan Abbot-Jamison (Anthropology, UK) describes (in Teaching at UK, Vol. 2, No. 3) how she transformed the Anthropology methodology course to enhance active learning. See also "Software to Facilitate Active Learning: Computer-Based Concept Mapping Using Inspiration" by Bill Burke in Teaching at UK, Vol. 2, No. 2.
"Good Practice Encourages Active Learning:
Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, writeabout it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves." from Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Studies, a pamphlet available from TLC. |
Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy in which small groups work together toward a common goal. It differs from collaborative learning and other small group work in that it is a much more structured technique (to ensure positive interdependence within groups) and it generally incorporates individual accountability in addition to a group grade. See information about Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education in the TLC library, 7 Gillis Building.
Characteristics of Cooperative Learning:
- individual accountability (individual efforts are recognized);
- heterogenous grouping (can be clusters of particular students);
- structured student interactions (possibly a script and roles [e.g., leader, clarifier, elaborator, recorder, spokesperson]); and
- teacher as facilitator.
A number of misconceptions exist about conducting cooperative learning exercises misconceptions which could sabotage the benefits to be derived from the procedure. According to an article by Cooper (1991), the following should be considered in designing cooperative learning exercises:
| Misconceptions about Cooperative Learning | Response
| | "Let students do their own thing." | Structure is important; clarify items like group focus, objectives, grading. |
|
"Let's give only group grades." | Assess individual effort (through individual assignments or journals) and give a group grade to avoid the dominator/sandbagger phenomenon where some students do more work and others make a minimal effort. |
|
"Let friends work together." | Heterogeneous groups allow for the development of social/communication skills and exposure to a diversity of opinions and backgrounds. |
|
"Let's have large groups for diversity." | Large groups can discourage participation of some individuals. Groups of 3 - 6 are best. |
|
"Can't afford the class time." | Better acquisition and retention of content as well as critical thinking could be attained. |
|
"Jump right in, the water's fine." | Starting small with familiar material helps. Planning is critical as is making explicit to oneself and the students the assignment's reasons, activities, and your expectations. |
See information about Cooperation in the Classroom by David W. Johnson, Roger T. Johnson and Edythe Johnson Holubec. This book is available for your perusal in the Teaching and Learning Center library, 7 Gillis Building.
"Good Practice Encourages Cooperation Among Students:
Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Workin with others increases involvement in learning. Sharing one's own ideas and responding to others' reactions improves thinking and deepens understanding." from Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Studies, a pamphlet available from TLC. |
Critical thinking can be defined as a rational and reflective process focused on evaluating the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs of oneself and others through an examination of assumptions, evidence, inferences, and outcomes . It might be thought of as a combination of a set of attitudes and dispositions (e.g., seeking reasons, being well informed, looking for alternatives) plus a set of skills and abilities (formulating and focusing on a question, analyzing arguments, deductive and inductive reasoning). Look in Teaching at UK, Vol. 2, No. 2, for information about the video, "Critical Thinking, Teaching and Learning" (49 mins., 1993) available for viewing at the Teaching and Learning Center, 7 Gillis Building.
Critical Thinking Checklist
The following list of "Elements of Thought" (Paul, 1992) could be used as a list of points for students to address as they read a text, watch a video or listen to a lecture:
- What is the problem or question at issue? (Define in your own words.)
- What is the purpose or goal of the thinking? Is the goal to evaluate? to synthesize?
- Which frames of reference or points of view are involved? (conservative? feminist? environmentalist?)
- Which assumptions are made? (what are they? warranted?)
- Which central concepts and ideas are involved?
- Which principles or theories are used?
- What evidence, data or reasons are advanced?
- Which inferences made?
- Which interpretations and claims are proposed?
- Which implications and consequences are involved?
Exercises to Foster Student Involvement
Alan DeSantis (Communications, UK) writes about "Oral Communication Activities that Promote Active Learning" in Teaching at UK, Vol. 3, No. 1. The following are a few examples of ways to foster active learning, cooperative learning, and critical thinking. Classrooms can become more dynamic when the lecture is supplemented in a relevant, carefully planned and well-structured manner. These strategies may need to be modified in a way that is most applicable to an instructor's course goals and individual discipline.
A lecture can be broken up into smaller segments punctuated by short writing assignments. These writing exercises, called "one-minute papers," last a minute or two, can occur anywhere in the lecture, and can be done in the students' notebooks or on cards. The following chart details the use of short writing exercises.
| When | Why | How: Questions to Ask
| |
Beginning of class | Focus attention quickly;
Recall relevant material;
Provide a discussion topic
| Briefly summarize a previous lecture;
Respond to a question about today's class |
| During a lecture | Reflect on the content
Provide a discussion topic |
Answer a question about the content;
Respond to a question relating to the material about to be covered;
Describe key concepts discussed so far;
Clarify points of confusion so far |
| End of class | Closure; final reflections
Data on class effectiveness |
State the most important thing you learned today
Describe points that are still unclear |
While the exercises need to be given some form of recognition or credit, they are not to be graded if the purpose is to encourage personal reflection, honest feedback, and open discussion.
By giving the students sufficient "wait time" to compose an answer and by requiring the response in writing, "one minute papers" could encourage more thoughtful participation and discussion. An instructor can follow-up on the papers in various ways, such as:
- asking a few students to read their responses,
- having students trade their written comments so that they read someone else's responses, or
- collecting the responses and choosing a few at random to read, discuss, and critique. Cards could also be collected, reviewed, and summarized and then addressed at the next class.
"One-minute papers" can be made into a collaborative effort if the instructor poses a question, gives students time to individually think of a response and write it down, then asks them to pair with a neighbor and discuss their responses. Pairs of students share their responses with the whole class. The act of consulting with a peer on a response adds a layer of reflection and security which, in turn, might encourage additional discussion.
Student dyads allow for a form of peer tutoring. Students read an assignment and write questions about the major points raised in the reading. At the beginning of class, students are randomly assigned to pairs and take turns questioning and correcting one another. The instructor circulates, gives feedback, and asks questions
Dialectical notebooks provide an additional peer perspective on a reading assignment and can act as an extrinsic motivating factor for critical reading since one's notes and thoughts will be reviewed for comment by another. A line is drawn down the center of two adjacent blank pages creating four columns across. A reading is assigned for class and the columns are used as follows:
Column 1
Observations while reading
| Column 2
Making meaning of column 1
| Column 3
Student B comments
| Column 4
Final reflections
| | Student A records notes, personal observations, quotations. |
Student A writes questions, makes hypotheses, and draws inferences based on notes in column 1 |
Students are paired and notebooks are exchanged in class. Student B comments on the remarks in columns 1 and 2 |
Notebooks are exchanged back and student A writes concluding thoughts having read the peer comments as well as the other student's notebook |
The Jigsaw method is one of the more elaborate methods of collaborative learning in which students collectively produce group reports by working with two groups of peers. A class is divided into several groups of students where each group has the same assignment (e.g., there might be five groups of five students each [students A through E] researching a particular topic). Each member of a group gets one component of the assignment such that all the A's are investigating the same piece, all the B's another, etc. Students conduct independent research on their assigned components and then meet to compare notes with the students from the other groups doing the same component (e.g., all the C's meet, all the D's, etc.). The goal here is to increase expertise in a specific area through collaboration. It might be advisable to have students submit a written report on their independent research prior to this meeting to avoid the possibility of some students taking advantage of the work of others. Students return to their home groups and share the information with their colleagues for the production of a group written and/or oral report.
Work by Bloom and his associates (1956) resulted in a taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives which can also be viewed as levels of increasing complexity of thought. The last three categories of Bloom's taxonomy are frequently referred to as higher-order thinking. One can frame tasks at each of these levels recognizing that analysis, synthesis, and evaluation questions will be the most challenging.
| Cognitive Objective | Sample Questions
| | Knowledge (identifying, recalling) | Who, what, when, where, how ...
Describe ...
Identify ... |
|
Comprehension (understanding) | Explain or interpret ...
Summarize ...
Predict ... |
|
Application (using in novel ways) | How is ... an example of ...
How is ... related to ...
Solve the following problem...
Apply the principle of ... to explain... |
| Analysis (breaking down into components) | What are the parts or features of...
Outline/diagram ...
How does ... compare/contrast with ...
What evidence can you list for ...
What assumptions and fallacies exist in... |
| Synthesis (combining ideas for new products) | How would you create/design a new ...
Propose a research plan for ...
Solve this problem using material from ...
Produce a unique product (e.g., a poem) |
|
Evaluation (judging, forming opinions, decisions) | Judge the following based on ...
Do you agree with ...? Why?
Critique the logical consistency of ...
Are the conclusions supported by the evidence?
Justify your answer. |
Students generally see finished products. They do not get to see instructors think through problems nor are they aware of the thinking behind the preparation of the class. Thus, if an instructor gives evidence for her or his thinking (e.g., the preparation for some aspect of the class) or thinks aloud in front of a class while working through a problem, he or she could be creating a valuable learning experience. When confronted with a question for which the answer is not known, rather than simply confessing ignorance and promising to check it out, the instructor could offer some possible reasonable answers with rationales and describe the steps that might be taken to further investigate the problem.
Metacognition refers to being aware of and monitoring one's own thinking. As an aid in encouraging and internalizing that skill, students can practice verbalizing thinking while working in pairs. One student thinks through a problem aloud while the other student encourages accuracy and thoroughness by asking questions such as, "Why did you take that particular step?" or "Can you explain that in more detail?" Students could then reverse roles.
Other active learning strategies:
Field trips
In-class writing
Demonstrations
Surveys or questionnaires
Brainstorming
Extended discussions based on audiovisual materials
Role playing
Guided imagery exercises
Simulations
Debates
Case studies: see "The Case Method, Teachnology, and Education" by Traci Bliss & Joan Mazur (UK) in Teaching at UK, Vol 1, No. 4
See the TLC abstract of Critical Thinking and Everyday Life in our Teaching at UK, Vol. 1, No. 2. This book is available for your perusal in the Center, Room 7 Gillis Building
"Good Practice Respects DiverseTalents and Ways of Learning:
There are many roads to learning. People bring different talents and styles of learning to college. Brillant students in the seminar room may be all thumbs in the lab or art studio. Students rich in hands-on experience may not do so well with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their talents and learn in ways that work for them. They they can be pushed to learning in new ways that do not come so easily." from Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Studies, a pamphlet available from TLC. |
Posted July 1, 1997
http://www.uky.edu/UndergraduateStudies/tlc/topic/teaching3.html
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