OBJECTIVES:
 1. Use the steps and tools of reflective thinking to solve a problem in a small group discussion.
 2. Apply brainstorming to a problem-solving group discussion.
 3. Apply the ideal-solution problem-solving method to a group discussion.
 4. Apply the single-question problem-solving approach to a group discussion.
 5. Determine which problem-solving approach is most suitable for a given group discussion.

This chapter focuses on PRESCRIPTIVE Problem-Solving Strategies.  There is no one best way to solve problems in groups!
Guiding a group through a structured agenda can enhance its effectiveness.

   I.  An Overview of Prescriptive Problem-Solving Strategies

                Refer to Table 9.1 on page 228 for a Comparison of Problem-Solving Steps

    A. The Origin of Prescriptive Problem-Solving Strategies
      
           Dewey's (1910) reflective thinking is a series of logical, rational steps based upon the scientific 
           method of defining, analyzing, and solving a problem.   

          REFLECTIVE THINKERS CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING KEY QUESTIONS:

          1.  What is the "felt difficulty" or concern?  
          2.  Where is it located, and how is it defined?
          3.  What are possible solutions to the felt difficulty?
          4.  What are logical reasons that support the solution?
          5.  What additional testing and observation need to be done to confirm the validity of the solution?

     B. The Importance of Structuring Problem-Solving Discussion
          1.  Distinct phases of group deliberation have been identified (Orientation, Conflict, Emergence, Reinforcement).
          2.  Group discussion can be inefficient and time-consuming.
          3.  A STANDARD AGENDA can be used to structure discussion.
          4.  ANY method of structuring group problem solving is better than no method at all.
          5.  Higher quality decisions are possible when using a structured approach to problem solving.
          6.  Too much structure will minimize group interaction (the give-and-take contributions of individual group members)
          7.  There must be a BALANCE between Structure and Interaction (see Figure 9.1 on page 229)

  II.   Reflective Thinking:  The Traditional Approach to Group Problem Solving (see Review Box, p. 240 and 252)

      A.  Step One:  Identify and Define the Problem
          1.  A problem well stated is a problem half solved

          2.  Questions to consider:
               a.  What is the specific problem the group is concerned about?
               b.  What obstacles are keeping the group form its goal?
               c.  Is the question the group is trying to answer clear?
               d.  What terms, concepts, or ideas need to be defined?
               e.  Who is harmed by the problem?
               f.  When do the harmful effects of the problem occur?

         3.  Tools for Defining the Problem
               a.  Is / Is Not Analysis (what, symptoms, when , where, who)
               b.  Journalists Six Questions (who, what, when, where, why, how)

      B.  Step Two:  Analyze the Problem
          1.  Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small jobs:  causes, effects, symptoms, subproblems.
          2.  During this phase group members research and investigate the problem.
          3.  This phase includes FORMULATING CRITERIA FOR ACCEPTABLE SOLUTIONS
          4.  Questions to consider:
               a.  What is the history of the problem?  How long has it existed
               b.  How serious is the problem?
               c.  What are the causes/effects/symptoms of the the problem?
               d.  What methods does the group already have for dealing with the problem?
               e.  What obstacles keep the group from achieving the goal?
               f.  Can the problem be divided into subproblems for definition and analysis?

          5.  Tools for Analyzing the Problem
               a.  Force Field Analysis - group analyzes the goal by noting what driving forces make it likely 
                    to be achieved and what restraining forces make it unlikely to be achieved (see page 234).
               b.  6 M Analysis - manpower (human resources), machinery, methods, materials, money, minutes.

     C.  Step Three:  Generate Several Possible Solutions
          1.  List possible solutions in tentative, hypothetical terms.
          2.  Brainstorming is especially useful during this phase of the problem-solving process.
           
     D.  Step Four:  Select the Best Solution or Combination of Solutions
          1.   Refer tot he criteria proposed during the analysis stage of the discussion.
          2.  Consider each tentative solution in light of the generated criteria.
          3.  Questions to consider:
               a.  What are the advantages of each solution?
               b.  Are there any disadvantages to the solution?
               c.  What would be the long-term and short-term effects of this solution if it were adopted?
               d.  Would the solution really solve the problem?
               e.  Does the solution conform to the criteria formulated by the group?
               f.  Should the group modify the criteria?

        4.  Tools for Evaluating Solutions
               a.  Analyze the PROS and CONS (simple T chart)
               b.  Average Rankings and Ratings

     E.  Step Five:  Test and Implement the Solution
          1.  How can the solution be put into effect?
          2.  Questions to consider:
               a.  How can the group get public approval and support for its proposed solution?
               b.  What specific steps are necessary to implement the solution?
               c.  How can the group evaluate the success of its problem-solving efforts?

          3.  Tools for Implementing a Solution
               a.  ACTION CHART (grid that lists the tasks that need to be done and identifies who will be responsible)
                    PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)  see page 237-238 for more information.

               b.  FLOWCHART (step-by-step diagram of a multistep process) see page 239.

     F.  Applying Reflective Thinking to Your Group or Team
          1.  Clearly identify the problem you are trying to solve.
          2.  Phrase the problem as a question to help guide group discussion.
          3.  Do not start suggesting solutions until you have analyzed the problem.
          4.  In the definition and analysis steps of reflective thinking, do not confuse 
               the causes of the problem with the symptoms.
          5.  Constantly evaluate your group's problem-solving method.
          6.  Appoint one or more group members to remind the group to use a structured method of solving problems.
          7.  Constantly examine the group process!  (see questions on p. 242)

 III.   Brainstorming:  A Creative Approach to Generating Ideas for Problem Solving  (refer to Review Box, p. 249)
     
     A.  Traditional Brainstorming Steps (see Review Box, page 244)
           1.  Select a specific problem that needs solving.
           2.  Ask group members to temporarily put aside all judgments and evaluations.
           3.  After rules are clear, ask group members to generate as may possible solutions and share with the group.
           4.  Make sure that the group understand the "piggybacking" off someone's idea is useful.
           5.  Have someone record all the ideas mentioned.
           6.  Evaluate the ideas when the time allotted for brainstorming has elapsed.

     B.  Nominal Group Technique:  Using Silent Brainstorming to Generate Ideas
           1.  Group members generate ideas individually before sharing them with the group
           2.  Work alone...then regroup
           3.  NGT can be accomplished using e-mail and GDSS (group decision support systems)
           4.  First write down ideas and then share with the group

     C.  Delphi Technique
           1.  Absentee Brainstorming
           2.  One person coordinates the information and shares it with the rest of the group
           3.  Useful when conflict within the group inhibits effective group interaction
           4.  Time-consuming (should be used with face-to-face meetings to eliminate disadvantages)

     D.  Affinity Technique
           1.  Uses post-it-notes to sort through and organize ideas that a group may generate
           2.  Group organizes ideas into categories that have an "affinity" or are similar to each other
           3.  CONTEXT - BRAINSTORM - ORGANIZE - NAME - REFLECT (Institute of Cultural Affairs)
           4.  One of the best ways to develop a sense of collaboration in generating ideas.

     E.  Electronic Brainstorming
           1.  Type ideas at a computer keyboard -- see ideas as they are written (large screen or at individual workstation)
           2.  Generate more ideas
           3.  "Piggyback Effect"

     F.  Applying Brainstorming to Your Group or Team
           1.  Do not make the time limit for brainstorming too short.
           2.  Be certain that each group or team member understand the specific problem the group is trying to solve.
           3.  Make sure that the brainstorming is part of an overall problem-solving strategy.
           4.  Make sure that each group member follows the brainstorming rules.
           5.  If you are serving as the group's leader, try to draw less talkative group members into the 
                discussion and compliment them when they come up with good ideas.
           6.  Set aside a definite amount of time for brainstorming.
           7.  Consider reverse brainstorming (what would make the problem WORSE).
           8.  Consider rolestorming (increase creativity by asking group members to assume roles of someone else) 
           9.  Tell the group what will happen with the ideas and suggestions that are generated.
         10.  Make sure the brainstorming is the problem-solving format your group needs.

   IV.  Question-Oreinted Approaches to Problem-Solving (to keep groups oriented toward their goal)

     A.  Ideal-Solution Format
          1.  Groups answer questions designed to help them identify ideal solutions
          2.  Uses questions to help a group systematically identify and analyze a problem, pinpoint 
               the best possible solution, and formulate specific methods for achieving a solution.
          3.  See list of questions on page 253.

     B.  Single-Question Method

         1.  Requires that a group formulate a question to help obtain the information needed to solve a problem.
         2.  Five Questions
               a.  What is the question whose answer the group needs to know in order to accomplish its purpose?
               b.  What subquestions must be answered before the group can answer the single question it has formulated?
               c.  Does the group have sufficient information to answer the subquestions?
               d.  What are the most reasonable answers to the subquestions?
               e.  Assuming that the answers to the subquestions are correct, what is the best solution to the problem?

     C.  Applying Question-Oriented Approaches to Your Group or Team
          1.  If you are going to use the ideal-solution or single-question approach, provide group members with 
               copies of the questions that will guide their discussion.
          2.  Explain why you are using the format you have selected.
          3.  Keep the discussion focused on the specific question under consideration.

V.   Putting Principle into Practice:  Four Kinds of Problem-Solving Formats
     A.  Reflective Thinking:  Traditional Problem Solving
     B.  Brainstorming
     C.  Ideal Solution
     D.  Single Question