Last Updated: April 30, 4:00 p.m.

 

Announcements:

THE FINAL EXAM WILL BE ON MONDAY, MAY 3RD AT 8:00 A.M. IN OUR NORMAL CLASSROOM.  THE EXAM IS CUMULATIVE, BUT A MAJORITY OF THE QUESTIONS WILL BE DRAWN FROM THE MATERIAL COVERED SINCE THE LAST EXAM (PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND POLITICAL ECOSYSTEMS).

 

- Exam Three, with the correct answers highlighted, has been posted.  To access the exam, just scroll down to Apr. 16th, and click on EXAM THREE.

- *** There was a scoring error on the scantron for Exam Three.  Everyone who took Exam Three (rather than the makeup exam) should add 5 points to their “Percent” on the Print-out sheets that he/she received from Jeff.

- I have posted Exam Two, with the correct answers highlighted.  To access the exam, just scroll down to Mar. 10th, and click on “Exam Two”

- If you email me with a grade related question, please include your Student ID # in your email.

- As always, email Jeff (jafine2@uky.edu) or Dr. Waterman (rwate2@uky.edu) with any questions.

 

PS 101 – Section 002

Spring 2004

Waterman/Fine

 

Class Notes:

 

Jan. 21:  National expansion and evolution

§         *** Prior to the Civil War, people thought of nation as “These” United States

·        There was no national identity

·        The nation was a collection of separate states, each with its own identity

·        People identified themselves as a citizen of a particular state, rather than as an “American”

§         Following the Civil War, referred to as “The” United States

·        This really marked the beginning of a national identity

 

§         Westward expansion during 1800s

§         Industrialization of the U.S also begins in 1800s

·        This marks tremendous progress from the early rural culture in the U.S.

§         Federal government has Constitutional power to regulate interstate commerce

·        States and citizens look to the national government for action in this area

 

§         *** One of the dominant influences on the United States has been the overwhelming fear of standing armies

§         Development of a national army

·        Expansion of the military during wartime

·        Expansion of the military during the presidency of Teddy Roosevelt

§         McKinley’s presidency

·        Sinking of U.S.S. Maine

o       *** Congress pushes a reluctant president to war

§         In doing so, this expands the power of the presidency (at the expense of Congress)

§         Teddy Roosevelt (becomes president following assassination of McKinley)

·        Wanted the United States to become a world power

o       Military expands

o       National guard

§         Woodrow Wilson

·        WWI

§         FDR

·        Military grows exponentially during his presidency

o       This is largely due to the onset of WWII

 

§         *** The expectations of the presidency have changed dramatically over time, even though the language of the Constitution has not changed

 

Jan. 23:   Creation of the Constitution

o       The American Constitution is one of the first national constitutions written

§         Although it has foundations in the “social contract” traditions in philosophy

o       The Constitution was preceded by the Articles of Confederation

§         The Articles of Confederation failed miserably

o       The Founders felt that Parliament in Britain was representative of the people

§         When designing a new government, they designed one where the legislative branch had more power than any other branch

·        They Founders feared an executive with enormous power (they did not want another tyrant/king)

o       The Articles of Confederation

§         Outline of the government it created:

·        National government had little/no power

·        Needed unanimous agreement by all 13 states to amend or abolish the Articles of Confederation

·        No executive branch

·        No judicial branch

§         The Founders met in Annapolis to amend the Articles of Confederation, but not enough states sent delegates

§         They agreed to meet in Philadelphia to amend Articles of Confederation

o       Shay’s Rebellion

§         Daniel Shays – a farmer who had fought in the Revolutionary War – led a small uprising b/c he was upset with the government (taxes, etc.)

·        This uprising struck fear into the hears of the Founders

o       Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia

§         12 of the 13 states are represented (Rhode Island was not there)

§         Founders abolished the Articles of Confederation (despite the fact that abolition required unanimity, which they did not have)

§         Confederacy does not work

·        Need a strong central government

o       Revenue

o       Security

§         Need an executive branch

·        One that has power

§         James Madison – “Father of the Constitution”

·        Madison was also the architect of the “Virginia Plan”

§         Numerous compromises during the Constitutional Convention

·        Connecticut Compromise

o       Compromise of the New Jersey Plan and the Virginia Plan

o       Balanced the power between small states (like NJ) and large states (like VA)

o       Bicameral legislature

§         One chamber (House of Representatives) would be based on population

·        This favors large states

§         One chamber (Senate) would have equal representation for all states

·        This favors small states

·        Selection of the President

o       Electoral College

§         Electoral Votes for each state are determined by adding the # of House Reps. and # of Senators

§         Founders did not want the general public voting for the president

·        They were afraid that the masses would make poor decisions

·        They wanted a higher, more sophisticated body electing the president

 

 

Jan. 28:  Other Compromises of the Constitutional Convention

o       3/5 Compromise

§         This demonstrates the power of the Southern states

§         Each slave would count as 3/5 of a person when calculating a state’s population

·        This was important for purposes of:

o       Representation (both in House of Reps. and in Electoral College)

o       Taxation

·        Defining the Powers of the President (parallels Chapters 4 & 5 in Waterman text)

o       For the most part, the Constitution is extremely vague in its discussion of presidential powers

o       Founders were unsure what the role of the president really would be

o       Even the selection of the title “president” was intentional

§         They selected a title that did not connote power at the time

o       Founders felt that the Presidency would develop over time

§         Intentionally created vague language so that the document could evolve

·        This is consistent with the overall structure of the Constitution

o       The entire document was built with ambiguity and vagueness

§         This allows us to adapt the Constitution to changing circumstances that never could have been anticipated at the time it was written

§         This is referred to as a “Living Constitution”

·        Founders were much more explicit with the powers allotted to Congress

o       Article I of the Constitution outlines the powers of Congress

o       *** Founders believed that the Congress would be the most powerful/important branch of our government

·        Amendment process

o       Mechanism to formally change the Constitution over time

o       Requires a 2/3 vote in both chambers of Congress

o       Ratification of a Constitutional amendment requires ¾ of the states

o       *** This is an extremely difficult process à very high threshold

o       *** There have only been 27 total Amendments to the Constitition

§         And 10 of these (the Bill of Rights) were passed immediately

§         So there have only really been 17 Amendments passed and ratified since 1789

 

 

Jan. 30:  Constitution (continued)

  • Constitutional ambiguity (especially with respect to the presidency)
  • Article II of the Constitution
    • Enumerates the powers of the president
      • Very few powers are explicitly given to the president in Article II
        • Of the total words in Article II, less than 40% of them describe powers of the president
      • Among the powers specifically granted to the president in Article II:
        • Commander-in-chief
        • Veto power
        • Appointments
      • *** Vesting clause
        • Article II of the Constitution begins with a phrase called the “vesting clause”, which states that all executive power is vested in the executive office of the president
          • This vague language has been used to expand the power of the president beyond the powers listed in the Constitution
            • For example, Nixon used the vesting clause to claim that he had the Constitutional authority to bomb Cambodia
  • Article I of the Constitution
    • Enumerates the powers of the Congress
      • Many more powers granted to Congress than the President
        • Among them:
          • Power to tax
          • Coin Money
          • Borrow Money
          • Declare war
          • Support and maintain Army/Navy
  • The Anti-Federalists demanded that the Constitution include a Bill of Rights
    • The Bill of Rights is comprised of the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution (and were passed/ratified immediately)
      • First Amendment:
        • Freedom of speech, press, religion, free assembly, petition
          • Establishment clause à “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof”
            • This is where the “separation of church and state” originated
      • Second Amendment
        • “A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.”
          • What does this mean?  Does this give individuals the right to own a gun?
            • Probably not
              • Militia today is the National Guard (according to the Courts)
      • Third Amendment
        • You don’t have to quarter military officers at your house
      • Fourth Amendment
        • Protection against illegal search and seizures
        • *** Although, the PATRIOT Act infringes on these rights
      • Fifth Amendment
        • You cannot be tried for a crime without being indicted by a grand jury
        • You cannot be forced to testify against yourself
        • You cannot be tried for the same crime twice (Double Jeopardy)
        • You cannot be tried without Due Process
        • *** Although, the PATRIOT Act infringes on these rights
      • Sixth Amendment
        • Right to a speedy and public trial
        • Right to counsel
        • Right to face your accusers
        • *** Although, the PATRIOT Act infringes on these rights
      • Eighth Amendment
        • No excessive bail
        • No cruel and unusual punishment
      • Ninth Amendment
        • No denial of rights that are not written in Constitution that are “retained by the people”
      • Tenth Amendment
        • “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.”

 

 

Feb. 2:  Congress and Checks and Balances

  • Bicameral Legislature
    • In the United States, we have a Bicameral Legislature (Two Chambers)
      • House of Representatives: 435 House Reps
      • Senate: 100 Senators
    • Every state (except Nebraska) also has a bicameral legislature
    • Founders modeled the Congress after the British Parliament
      • House of Lords (Parallels the Senate)
      • House of Commons (Parallels the House)
        • This chamber is designed to be the more responsive branch, closer to the will of the people
  • Reapportionment
    • Every 10 years the allocation of seats in the U.S. House changes, based on the national census results
      • States may gain or lose seats based on population migration and fluctuation over the decade
    • The number of seats in Congress does not change, but the distribution of seats does change
      • This was not always the case (the number of seats used to increase as the total population increased)
  • Representative Democracy
    • The Founders believed that Direct Democracy was dangerous
      • They established a system of representative democracy to insulate the government from the will of the average citizen
  • House of Representatives
    • Designed to be the more responsive branch in the legislature
    • People vote directly for the U.S. House Reps
      • Senators were not chosen through general elections
        • They were chosen by elites in the states
        • The Founders felt that this was a good thing, because it limits the danger of direct democracy
        • *** This changed as a result of the 17th Amendment (1913)
  • Checks and Balances
    • One of the perceived strengths of a bicameral legislature is that it is a check on power
      • The Founding period was dominated by an overwhelming fear of a government with too much power
    • Separation of powers among various government institutions (Executive, Legislative, Judicial branches) is a check on the power of any one institution
    • We do not have a pure separation of powers
      • Many powers are shared by two institutions (or shared by both the House and the Senate)
    • *** One of the problems with a system of checks and balances is that is makes the process very slow and inefficient
      • This is what the Founders intended
        • They did not want rapid governmental changes
      • Vast majority of bills that are introduced into Congress fail
        • Majority of these failed bills do not even come up for a vote
          • Health Care is a classic example
            • Introduced by several presidents over the last 50 years, most recently during Clinton administration (it never came to a vote)
      • The system is designed to work very slowly
        • *** We will see this again when we discuss how a bill becomes a law
  • Committee System in Congress
    • There are far too many things for either the House or the Senate to deal with as an entire body
      • The work is divided up among subsets of the members of each chamber
    • Standing Committees
      • Permanent committees that have jurisdiction over a specific issue area/policy area
      • Every member of Congress serves on multiple committees

 

 

Feb. 4: Committee System and Congressional Elections

  • Committee system (continued from Monday)
    • Designed to help manage congressional workload
    • As Congress has continued to grow, these committees have become more vital
    • *** Most bills introduced into Congress die in committee/subcommittee without ever coming to the floor for a vote
  • Standing Committees (see notes from Monday)
  • Joint Committees
    • Comprised of members of both the House and the Senate
    • Deal with a new issue/current issue that is important
  • Power in Congress has changed over time
    • Major change in 1910 (see text for details)
    • Another change in 1970s and 1980s (see text for details)
  • The Speaker of the House is usually the most powerful member of Congress (currently, the Speaker of the House is Dennis Hasterdt)
    • Sometimes a powerful Majority Leader may have more power than the Speaker, but this is less common

 

Congressional Elections

  • House – 2 year term
  • Senate – 6 year term
  • *** Every two years, every House member comes up for re-relection, and 1/3 of the Senate comes up for re-election
  • “Permanent campaign”
    • Members of Congress, especially in the House, are constantly running for re-election
      • Once a member of the House is elected, he must begin running again, as his/her next election is only two years away
  • Incumbency Advantage
    • An “incumbent” = current officeholder
    • Incumbents seeking re-election win extremely high percentage of the time
    • House of Reps.
      • Overwhelming % of incumbents win (average is above 90% since World War II)
      • Redistricting = drawing district lines in such a way as to guarantee election for as many members of their party as possible
        • Gerrymandering
          • Drawing very odd districts (bizarre districts, like the one in Massachusetts that resembled a Salamander)
          • This redistricting has made most members of the House of Representatives “safe”
          • Their races are not even close
        • *** Of the 435 House races this year, only about 30 or so will even be remotely competitive
    • Senate
      • Incumbency advantage is not quite as high as in the House
        • Why?
          • Better challengers
            • More experienced
            • Lot more money than House challengers

 

 

Feb. 6: Congress (continued)

  • Important Functions of Congress:
    • Creating a budget
      • The president can create a budget and send it to Congress to be passed (this power does not come from the Constitution, but rather from the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921)
    • Oversight
      • This process is highly political
      • Oversight hearings
        • Most are forums for grandstanding by politicians who are hungry for facetime
    • Legislate
      • Pass bills
        • And also NOT pass bill
      • How a bill becomes a law (See your text for a diagram of the process)
        • *** VERY lengthy and complicated process
        • Here is one possible track that a bill can take (although a bill can originate either in the House, in the Senate, or in each chamber separately at the same time)
          • Member of House introduces bill
          • Bill is assigned to the Rules Committee
          • Bill is assigned to a Committee
          • (Usually) Bill is assigned to a Subcommittee
            • ** Many bills get sent to a subcommittee where they are killed without a vote
            • Subcommittee may have hearings
            • Subcommittee makes a recommendation to the entire committee (if the bill is one of the lucky few)
          • Bill makes it out of subcommittee, back to full committee
            • Committee makes recommendation to the entire chamber (again, if the bill is one of the select few – majority of bills will never make it from the committee level back to the entire chamber)
          • Bill sent to the Rules Committee
            • Rules Committee sets the rules for floor debate, amendment process, etc.
          • Bill comes to chamber floor
            • Debate over bill
            • Amendments proposed to the bill (if allowed by rules)
          • Bill comes up for vote
          • Bill passes with majority of the votes (again, this is a very small percentage of the overall number of bills that are introduced)
          • *** If and when a bill makes it through one chamber, it must pass through the other chamber as well (in identical form)
          • Bill gets introduced into Senate
            • Same process with Rules Committees, Committees, Subcommittees
          • If/when Senate bill makes it to the floor for debate, something unique can happen
            • **** Filibuster
              • A member of the Senate may attempt to kill a bill by not allowing it to come up for a vote.  Members may talk endlessly (about ANYTHING) in order to prevent a vote from occurring.  A filibuster can end in two ways:
                • The Senator may yield the floor to another member and stop talking
                • Cloture
                  • If 60 members of the Senate want the filibuster to end, they can vote for cloture
                  • This is a VERY high threshold, and thus it is VERY difficult to end a filibuster
                  • *** This is just way for a bill to be killed
          • *** Conference Committees
            • If the House and Senate do not pass IDENTICAL versions of a bill, the two versions are sent to a conference committee
            • Conference committees are made up of members of both the House and the Senate
            • The job of the conference committee is to reconcile the differences between the versions of the bill and compromise on a single version
            • If a single version is agreed upon, this new version gets sent back to each chamber and must get passed by both chambers
              • If no version can be agreed upon, the bill dies
          • Version of bill from conference committee passes through both House and Senate
          • Bill is sent to the President
            • Two possibilities:
              • President signs bill into law
                • Or he doesn’t sign it, but it becomes law automatically after 10 days
              • President decides to veto bill
                • Veto – president vetoes bill and sends it back to Congress
                • Pocket veto – if a bill is passed by Congress within the last 10 days of a Congressional session, the president can “put it in a drawer”
                  • The president neither signs nor vetoes a bill, and it dies
          • If the president Vetoes the bill, it either dies or must be overridden
            • Overriding presidential veto requires a 2/3 majority in BOTH the House and the Senate
              • *** Again, this is an extremely high number of votes to get in order to override a veto
                • Very few bills that are vetoed are overridden
            • If bill gets 2/3 of the vote in both chambers, it becomes law
        • *** With all of these places throughout the process where a bill can be killed and fail, it is easy to see why it is so difficult and time consuming to pass a bill
          • *** Most legislation that is proposed in Congress fails (and most never even make it to a vote)
        • *** Divided government
          • In recent years, divided government is more common
            • This is when the president is of one party and the other party controls a majority of seats in either the House, the Senate, or both
            • *** The fact that the president and Congress are held by different parties makes it even more difficult for legislation to make it through this difficult process

 

 

Feb. 9: EXAM ONE

 

 

Feb. 11: Congress and the Presidency (Parallels material from Waterman, Ch. 9)

 

  • In terms of power, our institutions today are vastly different than they were at the time of the Founding
  • Founders created a system of separation of powers
    • Some political scientists have stated that we really have a system with “separate institutions sharing power”
  • At the time of the Founding, Congress was the most powerful branch
    • Most presidents during the 19th century were mediocre and did not have a lot of power
      • *** Many mediocre presidents because Congress ran the show
        • There were opportunities for presidents to do more, but presidents during the 1800s deferred a LOT of power to Congress
      • Powerful presidents were the exception, rather than the norm
        • Powerful 19th Century presidents:
          • Washington
          • Jefferson
          • Jackson
          • Polk
          • Lincoln
        • *** Of the early presidents, Washington was one of the most influential
      • John Quincy Adams put together an entire agenda and sent it to Congress, this agenda was largely ignored by Congress
      • *** Chart in text comparing 19th Century presidents to 20th Century presidents
        • *** See Box 9-1 in Waterman Chapter 9
    • Teddy Roosevelt
      • Teddy Roosevelt was one of the most influential presidents
        • Teddy’s presidency is one of the most important in terms of changing the power of the presidency
        • One of the first presidents to address the public
          • Use of the “Bully Pulpit”
            • Teddy reached out to the public, trying to gain the support of the American people
              • The public found this refreshing
          • Technological advances allowed Roosevelt to get his message out more
        • During Teddy Roosevelt’s presidency, there was more international justification for a powerful president
          • Spanish-American War
          • Philippines
          • Panama Canal
          • Increased size of the navy
        • *** T. Roosevelt set Congressional agenda more than previous presidents
          • If Congress refused to do what Roosevelt wanted, he would go back to his use of the Bully Pulpit to try to get his way
    • Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) would finish the process of transforming the presidency
      • FDR’s first 100 days as president are often cited as some of the most important in history
      • When FDR took office, unemployment in the country was extremely high (around 25%)
      • Technological advances also contributed to FDR’s success and influence as president
        • Radio
          • Allowed FDR to speak directly to the American people

 

 

Feb. 13: The Advent of the “Modern” President

  • The birth of the “modern presidency” is attributed to FDR’s presidency
    • Presidency changed forever upon arrival of FDR
      • *** The expectations of the office have changed
        • The public expects much more from the president
    • *** Between Teddy and Franklin Roosevelt, the presidency is fundamentally changed between 1900 and 1945
      • In the early days of the nation, people did not expect the president to do very much
        • *** Today, the public has very high expectations for the president
          • This is a big change, even though the language of the Constitution has not changed
        • These rising expectations are driven by the national obsession with the president
          • *** Growth in the presidency can largely be attributed to technological advances, both of which can be traced to FDR’s presidency:
            • Radio – FDR’s radio addresses to the nation (called the “Fireside Chats”) allowed Roosevelt to speak directly to the public and let them know what his plans were for improving the nation
            • Television – FDR was first president to appear on television
          • Today, presidential charisma and image is extremely important
            • One of deciding factors of 2000 Election
              • Bush was seen as much more charismatic than Gore
            • One of the defining characteristics of what makes a “good” president
              • Reagan vs. G.H.W. Bush
              • Clinton vs. Carter

 

 

Feb. 16: No Class

 

 

Feb. 18, 20: No Notes Will Be Posted (If you miss class one of these days, try to get the notes from a classmate!)

 

 

Feb. 23: The Presidency (continued)

·        The Electoral College (continued from Friday)

o       In the 2004 election, there are only a handful of states that will be battleground states (10-15 perhaps)

§         The majority of states are already fairly safe, either for Bush or for the Democrats

o       In 2000, there were similar numbers of states that were competitive

§         Some were extremely close

·        In fact, in several states the distance between Gore and Bush was less than the number of votes received by Nadar in those states (Florida, New Hampshire for example)

·        *** If Gore had won ANY state that Bush won in 2000, Gore would be president

o       Today, the Democrats have very little chance of winning states in the South

·        Presidential Elections – The Consequences for Governing

o       Elections get a person into office, but they don’t help much in terms of governance

o       In the past, this was not the case

§         *** Many presidents in the past have claimed a “mandate” following their election

·        When presidents claim to have a “mandate,” they are claiming that they were elected based on their stances on specific policies

o       Thus, arguing that you have a mandate urges Congress to pass your policies, since the American people have spoken in support of your policy positions by electing you

o       Reagan claimed to have a mandate in 1980

§         *** While many presidents today claim that they have a mandate, very few presidents actually do

o       “Presidential coattails”

§         During presidential election years, presidents can often get other people running for lower offices (the House, the Senate, etc.) elected

§         People who are turning out to vote for the president will often also vote for the same party in other races

§         *** While this used to be very common, most evidence suggests that presidential coattails have disappeared

·        Today, most members of congress receive a higher percentage of the vote in their district than the president receives in that district

§         *** Main reason for the decline of presidential coattails:

·        The parties have declined

o       Weaker parties means that individuals are no longer voting for only one party at the polls

o       Higher likelihood of “ticket splitting” or “split ticket voting”

§         This is simply voting for a member of one party in one race, and a member of another party in another race

§         Consequence of declining coattails:

·        In the past, many members of Congress owed their election to the president (they were elected because the president swept them in on his coattails)

·        Since coattails have largely disappeared, members today do not “owe” the president, as they did in the past

o       *** Declining coattails and no real claim of a mandate means that presidents have fewer resources to govern following elections today than in the past

§         *** The rise of Divided Government in recent years also means that the president has fewer resources to govern

·        The Presidency as an Institution

o       We tend to focus on the individual, rather than the institution, yet the institution is very big and very important

§         We will talk about this much more when we discuss the Federal Bureaucracy

o       Models of presidential power

à Each president takes different approach

§         1) Restricted Model

·        Very limited use of power

o       President sticks to the authority given to him in the constitution

·        *** Most modern presidents do not behave in accordance with this model

·        Example: George H.W. Bush

§         2) Prerogative Model

·        Most expansive model of presidential power

·        We see this the most from “crisis presidents”

·        Examples: Lincoln, George W. Bush

§         3) Stewardship Model”

·        Presidents are stewards

·        This model asserts that presidents can do anything that is not explicitly forbidden in the Constitution

·        *** Most modern presidents behave in accordance with this model

o       Growth of the Federal Bureaucracy has come with the rise of the modern presidency

§         Executive Office of the President (EOP)

·        Key agencies in the bureaucracy

o       White House Office (WHO)

o       Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

§         This agency actively seeks the budget that the president wants

o       National Security Council (NSC)

§         This is comprised of the president’s top advisors on national security

·        Eisenhower probably expanded the EOP more than anyone else

o       Models of Managing the Bureaucracy:

§         Hierarchical/Pyramid Model

·        President is at the top of the pyramid

·        The Chief of Staff is directly below president

o       All lower staff answers to the Chief of Staff, who answers to the president

·        *** This is the more common, and better model

§         Spokes of the Wheel Model

·        The president is at the center

·        Each advisor is located along the various spokes of the wheel

·        *** Very hands-on model

o       This bogs the president down in too many details, and usually bombs miserably

o       Example: Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton tried this early in their presidencies, but both switched to Pyramid model after this model bombed

 

 

Feb. 25: Amendments, Presidential Approval, and the Bureaucracy

·        Constitutional Amendments

o       President Bush has endorsed a Constitutional Amendment that would define marriage as being between a man and a woman

o       Any such amendment would require a 2/3 majority in both the House (291 votes) and the Senate (67 votes)

§         Then, the amendment would have to be ratified by 3/4 of the states (38 states)

o       *** This is an extremely high threshold, making any such amendment unlikely

·        Presidential Approval Ratings

o       One of the best predictors or presidential ratings is the state of the economy

§         Example: Clinton’s approval ratings during his second term

·        Despite Lewinsky scandal and Impeachment, Clinton still had fairly high approval ratings

·        This is probably because the economy was doing well

o       Over the course of a president’s time in office, his approval ratings tend to decline

§         Exceptions: Eisenhower, Reagan, Clinton

·        These people all were president during relatively good economic times

·        Bureaucracy (continued from Monday’s lecture)

o       The bureaucracy is part of the executive branch

o       Given that the president is the head of the executive branch, he should be able to influence what the bureaucracy does

o       One aspect of the bureaucracy is the president’s cabinet

§         “Cabinet” phrase coined by James Madison

§         Cabinet is comprised of the head of the various executive branch departments

·        State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Transportation, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Energy, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Education, Veterans Affairs, Homeland Security

·        Presidential succession:

o       Vice-president

o       Speaker of the House

o       President Pro-Tempore of the Senate

o       Then members of the cabinet

§         The order of presidential succession is determined by the order in which each department was created

§         State, Treasury are the first two, since they were created first

§         “Inner cabinet” is comprised of the cabinet members with the most influence

·        Secretaries of State, Treasury, Defense, as well as Attorney General (head of Dept. of Justice) and possibly the Secretary of Homeland Security

 

 

Feb. 27: No Notes Will Be Posted (If you miss class, try to get the notes from a classmate!)

 

 

Mar. 1: The Federal Bureaucracy (Continued)

 

·        Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy

1.      Executive Departments (Department of State, Department of Defense, etc.)

2.      Independent Agencies (Environmental Protection Agency – EPA; Federal Emergency Management Agency – FEMA; National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA)

3.      Independent Regulatory Commissions (Nuclear Regulatory Commission, for example)

4.      Government Corporations

* Each of these will be discussed in more detail:

1.      Executive Departments (Department of State, Department of Defense, etc.)

a.       Discussed at length on Feb. 25th

2.      Independent Agencies (Environmental Protection Agency – EPA; Federal Emergency Management Agency – FEMA; National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA)

a.       These are not completely independent

                                                   i.      The President appoints the head of these agencies (and can fire them, just like he can with the head of Executive Departments)

3.      Independent Regulatory Commissions (Nuclear Regulatory Commission, for example)

a.       The appointment of the people who serve on these commissions is different from #1 and #2

                                                   i.      The president nominates the people who will serve on these commissions (he usually has to nominate people from both parties)

                                                 ii.      The president cannot fire these commissioners (and they serve for a fairly long period of time, so many commissioners who were appointed by previous presidents are in place when any president is in office)

                                                iii.      These commissioners serve staggered terms (so that their terms do not expire at the same time; thus, it take a long time for a president to replace all members of a commission)

b.      *** The Politics- Administration Dichotomy

                                                   i.      General definition?

1.      This is the idea that politics should be kept separate from the bureaucracy

a.       People in the bureaucracy should be neutral

2.      Members of the bureaucracy are supposed to be experts in their field (and these experts do not need a politician trying to tell them what to do)

                                                 ii.      How can this be achieved?

1.      One way is through limiting the president’s appointment poser (like discussed above in #3a)

2.      Another way is through Civil Service Reform (discussed below)

a.       Civil Service Reform

                                                                                                                           i.      Prior to these reforms, members of the bureaucracy were appointed based on the Spoils System (This was very common for early presidents à Most commonly associated with Andrew Jackson)

1.      Under the Spoils System, people were appointed based on patronage

a.       New presidents would appoint people who worked on their campaign, contributed money, etc.

b.      New presidents would kick out the people appointed by previous presidents and bring in their own people

                                                                                                                         ii.      Civil service reform (instituted during Chester A. Arthur’s presidency) ended the Spoils System

1.      People are only appointed after passing a rigorous exam testing their qualifications

4.      Government Corporations

a.       Supposed to:

                                                   i.      Be self-sustaining

                                                 ii.      Make money

                                                iii.      Be free from politics

·        *** The bureaucracy has become VERY LARGE

a.       Size has increased dramatically (in terms of number of employees, as well as size of budget)

                                                   i.      Today, the bureaucracy has over 2.7 million employees

·        What are the tasks of the bureaucracy?

1.      Rule-making

a.       Agencies write rules that must be followed by private corporations, universities, businesses, etc.

                                                                                       i.      Example: FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) regulations that say that you cannot smoke on an airplane, that you cannot tamper with smoke detectors in lavatory)

                                                                                     ii.      Example: TSA (Transportation Security Administration) regulates what you can and cannot carry on to an airplane

2.      Rule administration

a.       Carrying out rules that are passed by Congress, state legislatures, etc.

3.      Rule adjudication

a.       Regulates whether rules are being followed

4.      Others are listed in text

a.       These are important, but were not discussed in lecture!!!

 

 

Mar. 3:  The Courts (This material parallels Chapter 14 in the Squire text)

·        Powers of the courts are enumerated in Article III of the Constitution

o       Article III is not very long, and is not very detailed

o       *** The Constitution is silent on how to organize the court system

§         It only states that there will be a Supreme Court

·        Congress is charged with setting up the judicial system

o       In 1789, Congress established much of the judicial system

o       Supreme Court has 9 justices (although this number is not specified in the Constitution – it has fluctuated some over time)

§         The Constitution does specify that there is a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court

·        The federal court system has three tiers:

o       1) Supreme Court

o       2) Appellate Courts

o       3) District Courts

o       *** There has been some talk of revising the structure of the system, but no major revisions have taken place

·        Appellate Courts

o       There are 13 different Circuits in the Judicial System, established based on region

§         *** Given the structure of the courts, venue shopping takes place

·        Since there are different circuits, each with different ideologies, litigants are very careful about the circuit in which they will take their case

o       Litigants may take their case to Circuit that is more liberal, if they desire a liberal ruling

o       There are many instances where two different circuit courts make contradictory rulings in similar cases

§         These cases are usually taken up by the Supreme Court (since contradictory precedent will lead to inequalities)

·        An Example of Venue Shopping:

o       Litigants taking up the issue of Gay Marriage in Massachusetts, one of the most liberal states

§         This state’s Supreme Court was seen as a favorable court ideologically for this issue

·        Courts as policy-makers

o       The Courts make policy all the time

§         Ruling on what rights we do or do not have as Americans

§         Ruling on whether laws are constitutional

o       Examples:

§         Roe v. Wade

§         Civil Rights decisions

 

 

 

Mar. 5: 

 

 

Mar. 08:  The Courts (Continued)

 

The Following are the notes from the PowerPoint presentation on the Courts

 

How is the Judicial Branch Structured?

•      Federal and State Court System

–  Picture

•      Federal Court of Appeals Circuit Boundaries

–  Picture

 

Selecting Federal Judges

•      Federal District Court Judgeships

–  Senatorial courtesy – Senator(s) from the President’s party nominate judges for vacancies in their state

•      Federal Courts of Appeals Appointments

–  Appointed by president

–  Why is president interested in these judges?

•   Most decisions in Courts of Appeals stand

•   Stepping stone for judges to the Supreme Court

 

Selecting Federal Judges

•      Supreme Court Appointments

–  Very political because the Court institutionalizes political policies/views

–  20% of nominations have failed Senate approval

–  Today, Supreme Court nominations receive enormous media coverage and scrutiny

 

Policymaking Functions

•      Marbury v. Madison (1803)

–  Judges make policy through “judicial review”

•      Judicial Activism vs. Judicial Restraint

–  Activism – Use Court powers to check activities of Congress, state legislatures, and bureaucratic agencies from exceeding their authority

–  Restraint – Courts should defer to decisions made by legislative and executive branches (those elected) unless clearly unconstitutional

 

What Checks Our Courts?

•      Executive checks

–  Courts have no enforcement power

•      Legislative checks

–  States/Congress can ignore rulings (politically dangerous)

–  Overturn decisions by Constitutional amendments

–  Rewrite old laws and/or enact new laws

•      Public Opinion

–  People may ignore it (school prayer)

–  Public can pressure government officials not to enforce decision

•      Judicial Traditions and Doctrines

–  Judges exercise self-restraint

–  Judges often make decisions based on previous decisions (precedent)

 

How Do Justices Make Decisions?


Models of Court Decision Making:

•      Legal Model

–  Judges make decisions based on stare decisis (precedent)

•      Attitudinal Model

–  Judges make decisions based on their own policy preferences

 

Supreme Court

•      The U.S. Supreme Court grants certiorari to a very small number of cases every year

–  Rule of Four

–  Interest Groups and other political actors file amicus curae briefs with the Court

•   Try to influence decision to grant cert (or not grant cert)

•   Also try to influence the decision

Legal Model

•      Consistent with “judicial restraint”

•      Judges behave (grant certiorari, make decisions, etc.) based on legal precedent

–  Strict adherence to letter of the law

•      Judges do not impose their own personal policy preferences

 

Attitudinal Model

•      Consistent with “judicial activism”

•      Judges behave based on their own personal policy preferences or ideology

–  When making a decision, judges are making comparisons between previous court decision under review and their own preferences

 

•      Decisions consistent with attitudinal model

–  Voting patterns consistent with policy preferences of justices

•      Other political actors believe that judges behave attitudinally

–  President appoints like-minded justices

–  Senate more likely to reject nominees

•      Supreme Court following public opinion

–  Replacement Theory

 

Graphs

•      Partisan Affiliation of District Judges (graph)

•      Decision making by Democratic and Republican judges (graph)

 

Landmark Court Cases

•      Marbury v. Madison (1803)

•      Dredd Scott v. Sanford (1857)

•      Plessey v. Ferguson (1896)

•      Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)

•      Roe v. Wade (1973)

 

 

Mar. 10: EXAM TWO

 

 

 

Mar. 12:  NO CLASS

 

 

Mar. 22:  Presidential Approval Ratings

·        Presidential approval ratings are a double-edged sword

o       They can work in the president’s favor if they are high, or they can work against the president if they drop

·        Today, President Bush’s approval ratings are between 48-52 percent (depending on the poll)

o       When Bush’s approval ratings were at 90% following September 11, 2001, President Bush had enormous power

·        Early presidents did not speak in public very often

o       When they did speak, they did not advocate specific policies

§         Instead, they talked about general themes (such as patriotism, or prosperity)

o       **** Today, presidents almost speak constantly

·        Teddy Roosevelt (“The Bully Pulpit”) believed that presidents could increase their power though public speaking

o       *** This is when presidents began addressing the public with much higher frequency

o       One of the reasons for this increase in public speaking is technological advances

§         In the 19th Century, speeches were only given for a specific audience

§         In Teddy Roosevelt’s time, there was a better structure for communicating with more people (Associated Press had been recently created)

o       The public liked that Teddy was more open and addressed the public more

§         While there were no approval ratings, Teddy was “popular”

·        Woodrow Wilson was the next president to address the public with high frequency

o       *** Woodrow Wilson was the first president in over 100 years to deliver the State of the Union Address as a speech before Congress

§         Previously the State of the Union was just submitted in written form and read to Congress by the Clerk

·        Importance of Technology

o       Associated Press à Discussed above under Teddy Roosevelt

o       Radio

§         *** In addition to the Associated Press, radio was enormously important to presidents who wanted to communicate with the public

§         Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) understood that the radio audience was one person, or just a few people

·        “Fireside Chats”

o       He spoke on radio as if it were a one-on-one conversation

o       He even put grammatical errors in intentionally to heighten the conversational nature

o       Scientific Polling

§         1930’s – Birth of Scientific Polling

·        In 1924, 1928, and 1932 presidential elections, a publication called Literary Digest correctly predicted the winners

·        1936 Election

o       Literary Digest sent out 10 million surveys and predicted that Alf Landon would defeat FDR

o       George Gallup surveyed only about 2,000 people and predicted that FDR would defeat Landon in a landslide

 

 

Mar. 24:  Presidential Approval & Public Opinion (continued from Monday)

 

·        Since FDR, presidents have had their own pollster in the White House to monitor public opinion

·        Polling

o       Question wording can affect how people answer a polling question

§         Defense spending example

o       For polling to be accurate, the respondents must be a “random sample” of the population

§         This means that everyone in the country has the same likelihood of being polled

o       Polls are also very sensitive to events (so these events can bias the polls’ results)

§         “Rally ‘Round the Flag Effect”

·        Thus is when the president’s approval ratings jump up very highly following a crisis

o       Example: George W. Bush’s approval ratings jumped from around 50% before September 11th to about 91% immediately following September 11th

·        On some occasions, negative events can decrease a president’s approval ratings

o       Example: Vietnam War – Johnson’s approval decreased over time as the war dragged on

o       Example: Recent Iraq War – George W. Bush’s approval decreased over time as well

·        Presidential Approval

o       Presidential popularity has some effect on how much the president can get done in Congress

§         When a president has high approval ratings, this is a positive resource in trying to get things done in Congress

§         When approval ratings are low, it is very difficult for a president to get his agenda passed in Congress

·        Public Opinion – Levels of Trust in Government

o       Today the American people are much less trusting of government than they were in the past

·        Public Expectations of the president

o       Do we have realistic expectations of the president?

§         No, we have unfair expectations of the president today

·        We expect the president to do things that are largely beyond his control (such as impact the economy dramatically)

o       This makes presidents doomed to fail

 

Mar. 26: Public Opinion (continued)

·        Presidential Speechmaking

o       “Today presidents are talking more and saying less”

o       Clinton gave countless speeches and addresses, yet we really only remember three things he said:

§         Whether he wore boxers/briefs

§         “I did not inhale”

§         “I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Ms. Lewinsky”

·        Political Knowledge

o       Most Americans have absurdly low levels of political knowledge

§         Many Americans do not know basic political facts, such as the name of their Senators, Governors

§         Even more people have no idea what “liberal” and “conservative” mean

§         Even fewer people (only about 6%) know things such as the name of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court

o       Demographic factors have a lot to do with political knowledge levels

§         Education level is the most important predictor of political knowledge

·        People who have only a high school education are much less likely to know political facts/information

§         Poverty can also lead to low levels of political knowledge

o       Social characteristics are also important

§         Political interest is important

·        Those who engage in political discussions and are interested in politics are more likely to have political knowledge

·        Sources of Political Knowledge

o       School

o       Media

o       Social interaction/discussions

 

Mar. 29: Public Opinion (Continued)

·        “Issue Publics”, “Attentive Publics”

o       Definition: A group of people who pay very close attention to a particular issue and care a great deal about it

§         For example, there is an Issue Public that cares about the Environment, and another Issue Public that cares about Gun Control, etc.

o       Each presidential candidate is reaching out to specific issue publics who care about certain issues

o       Attentive Publics can be very important in placing issues at the forefront of the agenda

·        “Opinions”, “Attitudes”, and “Values”

o       See text for Definitions of each of these terms

·        “Values”

o       The electorate seems to be breaking down into “value groups”

§         These are segments of the public that care about certain values

·        For example, there is a “value group” that is pro-choice, another “value group” that is pro-life, etc.

o       Values have been put at the forefront of the political landscape

o       Reagan figured out that “values” was important in the 1980s, putting “family values” and religion at the center of his campaign

§         This went overboard in 1992, when George H. W. Bush allowed very conservative speeches at the Republican Convention

§         Vice-President Dan Qualye even publicly criticized Murphy Brown (a TV character) for having a child out of wedlock, saying that she was a bad example and did not represent American family values

·        “Political Socialization”

o       Definition: Process by which people acquire values and beliefs in society

o       Socializing agents (where we actually get our values)

§         Family

§         Friends

§         School

§         Media

·        What do “liberal” and “conservative” mean?

 

 

Mar. 31:  Public Opinion (Continued)

 

·        Values are becoming much more dominant

·        Ideology

1.      Definition: Elaborate set of interrelated beliefs that structure the way that you think about everything

1.      This is more than simply being a “democrat” or a “republican”

2.      Ideology incorporates opinions as well as some structure about how these beliefs fit together

·        Liberalism (Left, associated with Democrats)

1.      Belief that government should play a larger role, except with respect to morality issues

2.      Less trusting of big business

3.      Believe that government should be used to solve problems

·        Conservatism (Right, associated with Republicans)

1.      Belief that government should play a minimal role, except with respect to morality issues

2.      More trusting of big business

·        Libertarianism

1.      Belief that government should not have any role in either economic or personal/social issues

 

Left, Liberals, Democrats   ß----------------(Moderate, Centrists)----------------à Right, Conservatives, Republicans

(Examples: Ted Kennedy, Jesse Jackson)                                                   (Examples: Jesse Helms, Pat Buchanan)

·        Sources of Ideology (see text)

·        Process of Molding Ideologies (see text)

o       “If you’re not a liberal when you’re young, you have no heart.  If you’re not a conservative when you’re old, you have no brain.”  Winston Churchill

o       Ideologies do change over time

·        “Attitude consistency”

o       Definition: Degree to which various attitudes are roughly consistent

o       Many Americans bounce all over the place with their attitudes (people have some attitudes that are conservative, others are liberal)

 

 

April 2:  Political Participation:

Voting and Non-voting Participation in the United States

Political Participation

n    Do Americans participate in government?

¨  What are the trends?

¨  What explains levels of participation in the U.S.?

n    How do participation levels of Americans compare with citizens of other nations?

¨  What can explain the differences?

n    What do those who participate look like?

¨  Demographic factors and turnout

n    Should Americans participate?  Does participation matter?

 

Political Participation

n    Two Types of Political Participation:

¨  Conventional Participation

n   Voting

n   Letter writing

n   Contact with Representatives

n   Working on Campaigns

n   Campaign Contributions

n   Joining Groups (social capital)

n   Running for Office

¨  Unconventional Participation

n   Boycotts, Sit-ins, Marches, Demonstrations, Violence

 

Levels of Conventional and Unconventional Participation (graph)

 

Expanding Suffrage

Constitutional Amendments:

n   15 (1870) = Race

n   19 (1920) = Sex

n   23 (1961) = Residents of DC can vote for President but not Congress

n   24 (1964) = Poll tax

n   26 (1971) = 18 years old, changes from 21

 

Voting Trends

n   Initially, suffrage changes resulted in increased participation

n   Recently, voter turnout steadily on the decline = the vanishing electorate

n   High of around 60% in Presidential elections -- 50% in midterm -- even lower in local elections

 

Participation in U.S. Compared with Other Nations (graph)

 

Various Explanations for Limited Participation

n   Why Americans Still Don’t Vote

n   Voter Registration

¨ Not automatic

¨ Requires foresight

¨ Residency requirements

n  Mobile Electorate

n   Voting Percentage of Registered Voters rivals the voter turnout in other countries

n   Motor-Voter Legislation

 

Various Explanations for Limited Participation

n   There are too many elections in the United States

¨ High information costs

n   Election Day (Tuesday, work day)

n   Voter apathy

n   People believe they gain few personal benefits to themselves from voting

 

Various Explanations for Limited Participation

n   Political parties are weaker

n   Opportunity costs

n   Generational Change

¨ Civic duty has declined

n   Irrational to vote

¨ Very little chance of affecting the outcome of an election

n   Weather

 

April 5:  Political Participation: Who Votes And Who Do They Vote For?

 

Where Does Information Come From?

·              Political scientists do not have actual data on either voter turnout or vote choice

o       Australian Ballot

 

·              Most of what we know about turnout and vote choice come from either surveys or exit polls

 

Surveys

·              One question many election surveys ask is whether the respondent intends to vote (if before the election) or whether the respondent actually voted (if after the election)

·              Misreport problem

o       “Social desirability”

 

Exit Polls

·              Polls conducted at voting locations to collect better information about voters

·              Pollster randomly asks voters to fill out brief questionnaires

·              These questionnaires ask questions about vote choice as well as many questions about demographics

 

Demographics and Voter Turnout (Graph)

*** If you missed this lecture, make sure you get notes on this graph!!!

 

Fundamental Paradox of Participation

·              Higher education leads to higher participation

o       Americans are more educated today than they were in the past

·              Higher registration leads to higher participation

o       More Americans are registered to vote

·              *** Why has turnout declined?

 

Impact of Voter Turnout

·              Elderly voters turn out at the highest rate

o       Social Security

o       Medicare

·              Young voters turn out at the lowest rate

o       “Young” issues are neglected at the expense of others

o       “20 Million Loud”

 

Demographic Factors and Vote Choice

·              2000 Election Exit Polls

·              http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2000/epolls/US/P000.html

*** If you missed this lecture, make sure you get notes on this information, or check it out yourself on through the hyperlink above!!!

 

Increasing Voter Turnout

·              Should we increase voter turnout?

 

·              How could we increase voter turnout?

 

 

April 7:  Media: Functions of the Media and Problems with the Media

 

Functions of the Mass Media

n     Functions of the media

¨   Transmit political information from political actors to the public

¨   Gatekeeping

n   Media makes decisions about what is news, and for how long

¨   Watchdog function

n   Informal check in our political system

¨   Media allows the public to keep tabs on behavior of elected officials

¨   Expand scope of an issue

n   More media attention leads to higher levels of public knowledge about issue

¨   This leads to more pressure on politicians

 

Problems with the Media

n    Agenda setting – Blurs perceptions

¨  The media tells up what to think about by covering some issues, and ignoring others

n    Bias

¨  Ideological bias

¨  Corporate bias

n    Media not accessible to everyone

n    Priming

n    Framing

Media Agenda Setting

n    Agenda setting

¨  The decision to cover any event or issue necessarily means that other issues are more unlikely to be covered, even if those issues are arguably more important

n    “Newshole” is limited by various constraints

¨  Time

¨  Space

n    Pressure to cover the sensational…

Media Blurs Perceptions

n    If it bleeds, it leads

¨  When asked about the crime rate, most respondents vastly overestimate overall crime rate, and more particularly violent crime rate

¨  Since 1990, murder coverage increased over 500% while real world homicide rates dropped over 40%

n   1999 – Lowest crime rate of decade, but 511 homicide stories

n   1991- Higher crime rate than in 1999, but fewer than 100 homicide stories on major 4 networks

 

If It Bleeds, It Leads (Graph)

 

Examples of Agenda setting

n     Experiment 1 – News stories about defense

¨   Group A: Stories about weakness in defense

¨   Group B: No stories about defense

¨   *** Group A participants much more likely to cite defense as a major problem facing nation

n     Experiment 2 – Various news stories

¨   Group A: Stories about defense

¨   Group B: Stories about pollution

¨   Group C: No added stories

¨   *** Participants cited defense, pollution, depending on what stories they were exposed to

 

Bias

n    Ideological bias

¨  Claim that there is a liberal bias in the media

n   Many in media are liberal (tend to vote Democratic)

¨  Higher percentage of liberals in national media

¨  Rising claim of conservative bias as well

n   Fox News obviously has conservative slant

n    “Misperceptions, the Media, and the Iraq War”

(Media bias and misperceptions about Iraq war)

 

Bias

n      Corporate Bias - corporate owners of media outlets might unduly influence news content:

–       Disney à ABC, ESPN

–       Time Warner-AOL à CNN, TBS, TNT, HBO, Time, Sports Illustrated, People, Entertainment Weekly, Fortune, Money, Warner Brothers., New Line Cinema

–       General Electric, RCA, and Westinghouse à NBC, CNBC, MSNBC, History Channel

–       VIACOM à CBS, MTV, VH1, BET, TNN, UPN, Comedy Central, Showtime, TMC, Nickelodeon, Paramount

–       News Corporation à Fox, NY Post, London Times

n      Conflict between desire of journalists to report news and corporations’ desire to maintain business interests

 

Media not accessible to everyone

n    While most newspapers and TV news are presented at basic level, there are high start-up costs that disadvantage many

¨  Terms used often over the head of those with low political knowledge

n   Without basic knowledge about politics, and often the issue at hand, many cannot understand the news

¨  Saying that a Democratic challenger to the incumbent is much more liberal is only informative if you understand ideologies (including how they match up with your own preferences)

 

Framing

n    The way that the media presents a story

n    Can affect who we blame for a particular problem, which affects how we think the government should respond

¨  Individual vs. societal frames

n   Poverty experiment

n   Those who were exposed to societal frames more likely to blame society for high poverty levels

¨  More likely to support welfare, food stamps, etc.

n   Those who were exposed to individual frames more likely to blame individuals

¨  Oppose social welfare programs

 

Priming

n     Prominence of stories in the media can affect the standards by which we judge political leaders

¨   Bush overall approval rating – 71%

n   Approval of handling of economy – 49%

n   Approval of handling of taxes – 52%

n   Approval of handling war in Iraq – 71%

¨   **Overwhelming coverage of the war is priming the public

n   Evaluate Bush, they do so based on war, rather than economy or taxes

 

 

April 9:  Theories of Media and Politics

 

The Media and Politics

Politics in the Age of Mass Media

 

Media and Elections

w   Politicians and media have a symbiotic relationship

w   Media focus on conflict and negative advertisements

w   Media focus on frontrunners and the horserace

w   Campaigns focus on spin and soundbites

 

Media and Politics

w    Theories of Media and Politics

n    Patterson

n    Sabato

n    Zaller

w    Media and Elections

n    Debates

n    Conventions

n    Ads

Patterson’s Out of Order

w          Trends in media coverage of elections

 

•             Tone of coverage à Positive to negative

 

•             Style à Descriptive to interpretive

 

•             Issues à Policy issues to reporters’ issues

 

Patterson’s Out of Order

Consequences

•             Tone of coverage à Positive to negative

Consequence: Voters distrust candidates, government, media

 

•             Style à Descriptive to interpretive

Consequence: Voters less informed

 

•             Issues à Policy issues to reporters’ issues

Consequence: Voters adopt media frames/primes

 

Sabato’s Feeding Frenzy

 

Ø          Lapdog journalism (1941-1966)

Ø           Reporting that served and reinforced the political establishment.

Ø          Watchdog (1966-1974)

Ø           Scrutinized and checked the behavior of political elites by undertaking independent investigations into statements made by public officials.

Ø          Junkyard dog (1974 to present)

Ø           Reporting that is often and harsh, aggressive intrusive, where feeding frenzies flourish and gossip reaches print.

 

Causes of the Feeding Frenzy

w   Advances in media technology

 

w   Competitive pressure

 

w   Political events

 

Zaller’s Theory of Media Politics

w                Theory of campaign coverage needs to take into account the different interests of voters, media, and candidates

•                  Voters: "Don’t waste my time"; "Tell me only what I need to know"

•                  Candidates: Use journalists to "Get Our Story Out"

•                  Journalists: Maximize their "voice" in the news

 

Media and Elections: Debates

w    1960: First Televised Debate

w    1984: Reagan’s Age

n    "I will not make age an issue in this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience."

w    1988 - “You’re no Jack Kennedy”

w    1988 - Death Penalty

w    1992 - Price of milk?

w    2000 - Gore (sighing)

 

Media and Elections: Conventions

w    In the past, party conventions were much more important

 

w    Today, they are media events

n    Nothing new happens

n    Scripted events, speeches

 

w    Today, conventions usually give candidates a positive bump in the “horserace”

n    These bumps are short-lived

 

Media and Elections: Ads

w   Political advertising: positive vs. negative

n    Positive advertising

l  Seek to define yourself before your opponent does it for you

n    Negative advertising

l  Does it work?

w   Yes à Voters remember negative ads longer than positive ads
§    Negative ads provide information to voters

 

 

Negative Ads: Classic Examples

- Daisy Ad

- Willie Horton Ad

- Meatball Ad

 

 

April 16:  EXAM THREE

 

 

April 19:  Political Parties

Parties at the Founding

•      The Constitution contains no provision for political parties

–   The Framers did not consider them to be necessary

•      Washington warned against the rise of parties in his Farewell Address

•      Federalists 10 and 51 warn against “factions”

o    Why did they form and why do they persist today?

à They are useful to candidates and to voters

 

Roles of Political Parties

•             Organize elections

–          Nominate candidates and compete for office

–          National, State and Local Committees

•             Provide Voting Cues

–          Help deflect information costs

•             Connect citizens to government

–          Help elected officials create packages of policy

•          Ex: Contract with America

•             Crucial to organization of the legislative branch

 

 

Evolution of Party System and Critical Elections

•      First Party System: Jeffersonian

–   1796-1824

 

•      Second Party System:  Jacksonian Democracy

–   1828-1856

•      Third Party System: Civil War Period

–   1860-1892

•      Fourth Party System: Industrial Republican

–   1896-1928

•      Fifth Party System: New Deal

–   1932-1964

•      Sixth Party System: Divided Government

–   1968-Present

 

*** Parties were very important during the Second, Third, and Fourth Party Systems

            - Parties have declined in importance since the election of FDR and the rise of the New Deal

 

 

April 21:  Political Parties (Continued)

 

Evolution of Party System and Critical Elections

•      First Party System: Jeffersonian

–   1796-1824

•      Second Party System:  Jacksonian Democracy

–   1828-1856

•      Third Party System: Civil War Period

–   1860-1892

•      Fourth Party System: Industrial Republican

–   1896-1928

•      Fifth Party System: New Deal

–   1932-1964

•      Sixth Party System: Divided Government

–   1968-Present

 

Two Party System

•      Other nations:

–   Multi-member districts, proportional representation

 

*** How Does the American electoral system reinforces two-party system?

•      Structure of elections:

–   Single-member, simple plurality system

•    “Winner Take All” elections

•      Other factors:

–   Media attention (or lack thereof)

–   Contributions and Federal Funding

–   Debates

 

Problems with Two Party System:

•      Almost all third parties are marginalized

•      Natural incentive for parties and candidates to be similar to each other

•      Divided Government and gridlock

 

 

April 23:  Political Parties (Continued) and Political Ecosystems

·        *** The political parties have declined in recent decades

·        Why?

o       The primary process

§         Prior to 1972, primaries did not dictate nominees for office

§         The parties used to determine the nominee

·        The 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago led to major changes in the nomination process

o       The convention was surrounded with turmoil

§         The sitting president (Lyndon Johnson) withdrew from the race

§         The frontrunner, Robert Kennedy, was assassinated just before the Convention

§         There were protestors in Chicago that led to major rioting

§         Humphrey, who won the nomination at the convention, didn’t win a single primary

§         The turmoil of the 1968 led to major reforms, based on the recommendation of the McGovern-Frasier Commission

·        These reforms called for a Primary system that would determine the party’s nominee

·        *** This cut the parties out of the process, as the public (rather than the party) determined who would be the nominee

§         *** In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the Democratic Nomination by winning the most delegates through the primaries, even though he wasn’t the candidate that the Democratic Party wanted

·        The sitting President Gerald Ford almost lost the Republican nomination to Ronald Reagan in 1976

·        Political Science theories of parties

o       There are Three Parties:

§         Parties in the Electorate

·        This is comprised of the general public, whom either identify as a member of a political party, or as Independents

§         Parties in Office

·        This is comprised of Elected Officials in Office

§         Party Organization

·        This is comprised of National and State Party Committees

o       Parties in the Electorate are on the decline

§         More people are identifying themselves as “independents”, rather than as “Republicans” or “Democrats”

o       Party Organizations are also on the decline

§         The National Parties no longer have the influence that they previously had

·        Today, the National Party’s main function is to raise money for its candidates for office

§         The State Parties are playing a larger role today

·        Political Ecosystems

o       Definition: Politics are not all separate actors.  Changes in one actor can have an impact on many others

o       See Figure 11-1 in Waterman text

o       In the past, all actors in the system would look towards parties

§         Today, everyone is focused on the president

 

April 26, 28, 30:  Interest Groups

Interest Groups

•      Why are groups so important?

–  Can individuals made change acting alone?

•   No, unless perhaps that person is extremely wealthy

–  Aggregation of resources

•   Money, members = power

–  Forming advocacy coalitions

•   Collective voice louder than single voice

•      Groups or “special interest groups” are sometimes viewed as a bad thing. Why?

 

Interest Groups: Background

•           Have been around since founding

–        Madison mentions them in Federalist 10

•           A relatively small number of groups until the 1960s

–        Major growth in interest groups in the 1960s

•        Why?

1.      Diversity of population
2.      Diffusion of power: more actors involved, so more room for lobbying
3.      Increasing number of agencies/programs = more clients
4.      Weakening of political parties: people turn to groups
5.      Technology: Easier to form/maintain groups
6.        Increasing public demands (resources and rights)

 

Why Do People Join Groups?

•      To gain some sort of a benefit.

–  Economic well being or gain

 à The motivation to join a labor union

–  The desire to do good

à The motivation to join an environmental or civil rights group

–  The desire to belong to or identify with a group

–  The desire to find a way to make one’s voice heard

–  To get the freebies: magazines, journals, calendars, insurance, discounts etc.

 

What Do Groups Do?

•      Lobbying (providing information)

–   Lobbying individual members of Congress, Congressional Committees, members of bureaucracy

•    Lobbyists can provide information that is unavailable or unknown to elected officials

•    Has to be GOOD information, or else no one would listen to them again

•      Support candidates

–   Money to campaigns (directly or indirectly)

–   Votes (mobilization of members to vote for candidate)

 

When Lobbying Fails…

....Interest Groups turn to other strategies:

•      Mobilize members to take action

–  Contacting members of Congress, boycotting (Mont. Bus Boycott), March on Washington

•      Sue in court

–  NAACP Legal Defense Fund, Inc

•   Most prominent victory was Brown v. Board

•      Public protests and “direct action”

–  Riots, Protests (World Trade Organization)

 

Groups and Power

•      We all know that some groups have more power than others

•      Think of the most powerful interest groups in the United States:

        à AARP

        à AFL-CIO (Labor Unions)

        à NRA

Why do some groups have more power than others?

 

Differences in Group Power

•      Resources

–   Money

–   Information

•      Size of membership

–   Not just membership, but ability to mobilize members

•    Voting, Contacting, Protest/Petition

•      Reasons for membership

–   Direct economic incentives

–   Material inducements

•      Congruence of goals with prevailing ideas and values

–   If public opinion supports a group’s cause

 

 

Free-rider Problem

•      Public goods are goods that can benefit everyone, and from which no one can be excluded

–   Two characteristics:

•    non-rival -- one person's enjoyment or consumption of the good does not prevent others from using it

•    non-excludable -- people cannot be prevented from using the good

•      Examples:

–   Roads, Nat’l defense, clean air, end of world hunger etc.

 

Free-rider Problem

•      Non-excludability leads to the free rider problem:

•      A free rider is a consumer or producer that benefits from the actions of others without paying

–  Because of the free rider problem, public goods are usually provided by the government, which levies taxes to pay for the goods

 

Overcoming Free-rider Problem

•      Small Groups

–   Peer pressure, solidarity incentives against free-riding

•      Coercion

–   Lobbying governmental jurisdictions to hire, approve, or certify only their members, to force free-riders to join

•      Selective benefits

–   Journals, consulting services, etc.

–   AARP: World’s largest mail-order pharmacy, low-cost insurance, discounts on goods/products/services (all for $12.50/yr.)

 

·